REVISED EDITION WITH PLANS AND COLORED MAP
This compilation is designed to be a companion to the author's Historyof Greece. It is hoped that it may fill a want, now felt in many highschools and academies, of a short and clear statement of the rise andfall of Rome, with a biography of her chief men, and an outline of herinstitutions, manners, and religion.
For this new edition the book has been entirely rewritten, additionalmatter having been introduced whenever it has been found necessary tomeet recent requirements.
The penults of proper names have been marked when long, both in thetext and Index. The Examination Papers given are introduced toindicate the present range of requirement in leading colleges.
The maps and plans have been specially drawn and engraved for thisbook. The design has been to make them as clear and open as possible;consequently, names and places not mentioned in the text have, as arule, been omitted.
ROBERT F. PENNELL. RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA, July. 1890.
[Illustration: GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR.]
CHAPTER I.
Italy is a long, narrow peninsula in the southern part of Europe,between the 38th and 46th parallels of north latitude. It is 720 mileslong from the Alps to its southern extremity, and 330 miles broad inits widest part, i.e. from the Little St. Bernard to the hills northof Trieste. It has an area of nearly 110,000 square miles, about thatof the State of Nevada.
The Alps separate Italy on the north and northwest from the rest ofEurope. The pass over these mountains which presents the leastdifficulties is through the Julian Alps on the east. It was over thispass that the Barbarians swept down in their invasions of the country.The Apennines, which are a continuation of the Alps, extend throughthe whole of the peninsula. Starting in the Maritime Alps, they extendeasterly towards the Adriatic coast, and turn southeasterly huggingthe coast through its whole extent. This conformation of the countrycauses the rivers of any size below the basin of the Po to flow intothe Tyrrhenian (Tuscan) Sea, rather than into the Adriatic.
Northern Italy, between the Alps and the Apennines, is drained by thePadus (Po) and its tributaries. It was called GALLIA CISALPÍNA (Gaulthis side of the Alps), and corresponds in general to modern Lombardy.The little river Athesis, north of the Padus, flows into the Adriatic.Of the tributaries of the Padus, the Ticínus on the north, and theTrebia on the south, are of historical interest.
The portion of Northern Italy bordering on the Mediterranean is amountainous district, and was called LIGURIA. In this district on thecoast were Genua and Nicaea. The district north of the Athesis,between the Alps and the Adriatic, was called VENETIA, from whichcomes the name Venice. Here were located Patavium (Padua), Aquileia,and Forum Julii.
Gallia Cisalpína contained many flourishing towns. North of the Paduswere Veróna, Mediolánum (Milan), Cremóna, Mantua, Andes, andVercellae, a noted battle-field. South of this river were AugustaTaurinórum (Turin), Placentia, Parma, Mutina, and Ravenna. TheRubicon, a little stream flowing into the Adriatic, bounded GalliaCisalpína on the southeast. The Mucra, another little stream, was thesouthern boundary on the other side of Italy.
CENTRAL ITALY, Italia Propria, or Italy Proper, included all ofthe peninsula below these rivers as far down as Apulia and Lucania. Inthis division are the rivers Tiber, Arnus, Liris, and Volturnus, whichempty into the Mediterranean, and the Metaurus, Aesis, and Aternus,which empty into the Adriatic.
The most important subdivision of Central Italy was LATIUM, borderingon the Tyrrhenian Sea. North of it on the same coast was ETRURIA, andto the south was CAMPANIA. On the Adriatic coast were UMBRIA, PICÉNUM,and SAMNIUM.
The cities of Latium were Rome, on the Tiber, and its seaport, Ostia,near the mouth of the same river. Ten miles northwest of Rome wasVeii, an Etruscan city, and about the same distance southeast was AlbaLonga. Nearly the same distance directly south of Rome, on the coast,was Lavinium, and east-northeast of Rome was Tibur. Neighboring toAlba Longa were Tusculum and the Alban Lake. The Pomptine Marshes werenear the coast, in the southern part of Latium. Lake Regillus was nearRome.
In Etruria were Florentia, Faesulae, Pisae, Arretium, Volaterrae,Clusium, and Tarquinii; also Lake Trasiménus. In Campania were Capua,Neapolis (Naples), Cumae, Baiae, a watering place, Herculaneum,Pompeii, Caudium, Salernum, Casilínum, and Nola. The famous volcano ofVesuvius was here, and also Lake Avernus.
In Umbria, on the coast, were Ariminum and Pisaurum; in the interiorwere Sentinum and Camerínum. The river Metaurus, noted for the defeatof Hasdrubal, was likewise in Umbria.
In Picenum was Ancona. In Samnium were Cures and Beneventum.
SOUTHERN ITALY included APULIA and CALABRIA on the Adriatic, LUCANIAand BRUTTUM on the Tyrrhenian Sea.
Apulia is the most level of the countries south of the Rubicon. Itsonly stream is the Aufidus, on the bank of which at Cannae was foughta famous battle. Arpi, Asculum, and Canusium are interior towns.
In Calabria (or Iapygia) were the cities of Brundisium and Tarentum.
The chief towns in Lucania and Bruttium were settled by the Greeks.Among them were Heracléa, Metapontum, Sybaris, and Thurii, in Lucania;and Croton, Locri, and Rhegium, in Bruttium.
The islands near Italy were important. SICILY, with an area of about10,000 square miles, and triangular in shape, was often called by thepoets TRINACRIA (with three promontories). The island contained manyimportant cities, most of which were of Greek origin. Among these wereSyracuse, Agrigentum, Messána, Catana, Camarína, Gela, Selínus, Egesta(or Segesta), Panormus, Leontíni, and Enna. There are many mountains,the chief of which is Aetna.
SARDINIA is nearly as large as Sicily. CORSICA is considerablysmaller. ILVA (Elba) is between Corsica and the mainland. IGILIUM isoff Etruria; CAPREAE is in the Bay of Naples; STRONGYLE (Strombóli)and LIPARA are north of Sicily, and the AEGÁTES INSULAE are west ofit.
CHAPTER II.
So far as we know, the early inhabitants of Italy were divided into threeraces, the IAPYGIAN, ETRUSCAN, and ITALIAN. The IAPYGIANSwere the first to settle in Italy. They probably came from the north, andwere pushed south by later immigrations, until they were crowded intothe southeastern corner of the peninsula (Calabria). Here they weremostly absorbed by the Greeks, who settled in the eighth and seventhcenturies all along the southern and southwestern coast, and who weremore highly civilized. Besides the Iapygians, and distinct from theEtruscans and Italians, were the Venetians and the Ligurians, theformer of whom settled in Venetia, the latter in Liguria.
The ETRUSCANS at the time when Roman history begins were a powerfuland warlike race, superior to the Italians in civilization and thearts of life. They probably came from the north, and at first settledin the plain of the Po; but being afterwards dislodged by the invadingGauls, they moved farther south, into Etruria. Here they formed aconfederation of twelve cities between the Arno and the Tiber. Ofthese cities the most noted were Volsinii, the head of theconfederacy, Veii, Volaterrae, Caere, and Clusium. This people alsoformed scattering settlements in other parts of Italy, but gained nofirm foothold. At one time, in the sixth century, they were in powerat Rome. Corsica, too, was at this time under their control. Theircommerce was considerable. Many well preserved monuments of their arthave been discovered, but no one has yet been able to decipher any ofthe inscriptions upon them. The power of these people was graduallylessened by the Romans, and after the fall of Veii, in 396, becamepractically extinct.
The ITALIANS were of the same origin as the Hellénes, and belonged tothe Aryan race, a people that lived in earliest times possibly inScandinavia. While the Hellénes were settling in Greece, the Italiansentered Italy.
At this time the Italians had made considerable progress incivilization. They understood, in a measure, the art of agriculture;the building of houses; the use of wagons and of boats; of fire inpreparing food, and of salt in seasoning it. They could make variousweapons and ornaments out of copper and silver; husband and wife wererecognized, and the people were divided into clans (tribes).
That portion of the Italians known as the LATINS settled in a plainwhich is bounded on the east and south by mountains, on the west bythe Tyrrhenian Sea, and on the north by the high lands of Etruria.
This plain, called LATIUM (flat country), contains about 700 squaremiles (one half the size of Rhode Island), with a coast of only fiftymiles, and no good harbors. It is watered by two rivers, the Tiber,and its tributary, the Anio. Hills rise here and there; as Soracte inthe northeast, the promontory of Circeium in the southwest, Janiculumnear Rome, and the Alban range farther south. The low lands (modernCampagna) were malarious and unhealthy. Hence the firstsettlements were made on the hills, which also could be easilyfortified.
The first town established was ALBA; around this sprung up othertowns, as Lanuvium, Aricia, Tusculum, Tibur, Praeneste, Laurentum,Roma, and Lavinium.
These towns, thirty in number, formed a confederacy, called the LATINCONFEDERACY, and chose Alba to be its head. An annual festival wascelebrated with great solemnity by the magistrates on the Alban Mount,called the Latin festival. Here all the people assembled and offeredsacrifice to their common god, Jupiter (Latiaris).
[Illustration: Latium]
CHAPTER III.
We have learned the probable origin of the LATINS; how they settled inLatium, and founded numerous towns. We shall now examine moreparticularly that one of the Latin towns which was destined tooutstrip all her sisters in prosperity and power.
Fourteen miles from the mouth of the Tiber, the monotonous level ofthe plain through which the river flows is broken by a cluster ofhills [Footnote: The seven hills of historic Rome were the Aventine,Capitoline, Coelian, Esquiline (the highest, 218 feet), Palatine,Quirínal, and Viminal. The Janiculum was on the other side of theTiber, and was held by the early Romans as a stronghold against theEtruscans. It was connected with Rome by a wooden bridge (PonsSublicius).] rising to a considerable height, around one of which,the PALATINE, first settled a tribe of Latins called RAMNES,--a namegradually changed to ROMANS.
When this settlement was formed is not known. Tradition says in 753.It may have been much earlier. These first settlers of Rome werepossibly a colony from Alba. In the early stages of their history theyunited themselves with a Sabine colony that had settled north of themon the QUIRÍNAL HILL. The name of TITIES was given to this new tribe.A third tribe, named LUCERES, composed, possibly, of conquered Latins,was afterwards added and settled upon the COELIAN HILL.
All early communities, to which the Romans were no exception, werecomposed of several groups of FAMILIES. The Romans called these groupsGENTES, and a single group was called a GENS. All the members of agens were descended from a common ancestor, after whom thegens received its name.
The head of each family was called PATER-FAMILIAS, and he had absoluteauthority [Footnote: Called patria potestas.] over his household,even in the matter of life and death.
The Roman government at first was conducted by these Fathers of thefamilies, with a KING, elected from their own number, and holdingoffice for life. His duties were to command the army, to performcertain sacrifices (as high priest), and to preside over the assemblyof the Fathers of the families, which was called the SENATE, i. e. anassembly of old men (Senex).
This body was probably originally composed of all the Fathers of thefamilies, but in historical times it was limited to THREE HUNDREDmembers, holding life office, and appointed during the regal period bythe king. Later the appointment was made by the Consuls, still laterby the Censors, and for nearly one hundred years before Christ allpersons who had held certain offices were thereby vested with theright of seats in the Senate. Hence, during this later period, thenumber of Senators was greatly in excess of three hundred. TheSenators, when addressed, were called PATRES, or "Fathers," for theywere Fathers of the families.
The Romans, as we saw above, were divided at first into three tribes,Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres Each tribe was subdivided intoten districts called CURIAE, and each curia into ten clans called GENTES(3 tribes, 30 curiae, and 300 gentes). Every Roman citizen, therefore,belonged to a particular family, at the head of which was a pater-familias; every family belonged to a particular gens, namedafter a common ancestor; every gens belonged to a particular curia;and every curia to a particular tribe.
We have learned that in the early government of Rome there was a king,and a senate that advised the king. Besides this, there was anassembly composed of all Roman citizens who could bear arms.[Footnote: We must remember that at this time no one was a Romancitizen who did not belong to some family. All other residents wereeither slaves or had no political rights, i.e. had no voice in thegovernment.] This assembly of Roman citizens met, from time to time,in an enclosed space called the COMITIUM, which means a place ofgathering or coming together. This was between the Palatine andQuirínal hills near the FORUM, or market-place. This assembly itselfwas called the COMITIA CURIÁTA, i.e. an assembly composed of the 30curiae. This body alone had the power of changing the existing laws;of declaring war or peace; and of confirming the election of kingsmade by the senate. The voting in this assembly was taken by eachcuria, and the majority of the curiae decided any question.
CHAPTER IV.
The position of Rome was superior to that of the other towns in theLatin Confederacy. Situated on the Tiber, at the head of navigation,she naturally became a commercial centre. Her citizens prospered andgrew wealthy, and wealth is power. Her hills were natural strongholds,easily held against a foe. Thus we see that she soon became the mostpowerful of the Latin cities, and when her interests conflicted withtheirs, she had no scruples about conquering any of them and annexingtheir territory. Thus Alba was taken during the reign of TullusHostilius, and his successor, Ancus Marcius, subdued several citiesalong the river, and at its mouth founded a colony which was namedOSTIA, the seaport of Rome.
At this time (about 625) the Roman territory (ager Románus)comprised nearly 250 square miles, being irregular in shape, but lyingmostly along the southern bank of the Tiber and extending about ten ortwelve miles from the river. It was not materially increased duringthe next two centuries.
The original founders of Rome and their direct descendants were calledPATRICIANS, i. e. belonging to the Patres, or Fathers of thefamilies. They formed a class distinct from all others, jealouslyprotecting their rights against outsiders. Attached to the Patricianswas a class called CLIENTS, who, though free, enjoyed no civil rights,
In addition to the clients there were actual slaves, who were theproperty of their masters, and could be bought or sold at pleasure.Sometimes a slave was freed, and then he was called a LIBERTUS(freedman) and became the client of his former master.
As Rome grew into commercial prominence, still another class of peopleflocked into the city from foreign places, who might be calledresident foreigners, corresponding in general to the Metics atAthens. Such were many merchants and workmen of all trades. These allwere supposed to be under the protection of some patrician who actedas their patron.
These three classes, clients, slaves, and resident foreigners, wereall of a different race from the Romans. This should be constantlyborne in mind.
We have learned that Rome, as she grew in power, conquered many of theLatin towns, and added their territory to hers. The inhabitants ofthese towns were of the same race as the Romans, but were not allowedany of their civil rights. Most of them were farmers and peasants.Many of them were wealthy. This class of inhabitants on the agerRomanus, or in Rome itself, were called Plebeians (_Plebs,multitude). Their very name shows that they must have been numerous.They belonged to no gens or curia, but were free, and allowed toengage in trade and to own property. In later times (from about 350)all who were not Patricians or slaves were called Plebeians.
Until the time of Servius Tullius (about 550) the army was composedentirely of patricians. It was called a Legio (a word meaninglevy), and numbered three thousand infantry called milites,from mille, a thousand, one thousand being levied from each tribe.The cavalry numbered three hundred at first, one hundred from eachtribe, and was divided into three companies called Centuries.
During the reign of Servius the demands of the plebeians, who had nowbecome numerous, for more rights, was met by the so called SERVIANreform of the constitution. Heretofore only the patricians had beenrequired to serve in the army. Now all males were liable to service.To accomplish this, every one who was a land-owner, provided he ownedtwo acres, was enrolled and ranked according to his property. Therewere five "Classes" of them. The several classes were divided into 193subdivisions called "Centuries," each century representing the sameamount of property. In the first class there were forty centuries inactive service, composed of men under forty-six, forty centuries ofreserve, and eighteen centuries of cavalry.
In the second, third, and fourth classes there were twenty centurieseach, ten in active service, and ten in reserve. The fifth class hadthirty centuries of soldiers, and five of mechanics, musicians, etc.
The first four ranks of the troops were made up of the infantry fromthe first class. All were armed with a leather helmet, round shield,breastplate, greaves (leg-pieces), spear, and sword. The fifth rankwas composed of the second class, who were armed like the first,without breastplate. The sixth rank was composed of the third class,who had neither breastplate nor greaves. Behind these came the fourthclass, armed with spears and darts, and the fifth class, having onlyslings.
Each soldier of the infantry paid for his own equipments; the cavalry,however, received from the state a horse, and food to keep it.
This new organization of both patricians and plebeians was originallyonly for military purposes,--that the army might be increased, and theexpenses of keeping it more equitably divided among all the people.But gradually, as the influence of the wealthy plebeians began to befelt, the organization was found well adapted for political purposes,and all the people were called together to vote under it. It wascalled the COMITIA CENTURIÁTA, i.e. an assembly of centuries. Theplace of meeting was on the CAMPUS MARTIUS, a plain outside of thecity.
In this assembly each century had one vote, and its vote was decidedby the majority of its individual voters. The tendency of this systemwas to give the wealthy the whole power; for since each centuryrepresented the same amount of property, the centuries in the upper orricher classes were much smaller than those in the lower or poorerclasses, so that a majority of the centuries might represent a smallminority of the people. The majority of the wealthy people at Romewere still patricians, so the assembly was virtually controlled bythem. In this assembly magistrates were elected, laws made, wardeclared, and judgment passed in all criminal cases.
[Illustration: CAMPANIA]
CHAPTER V.
Of the seven traditional kings of Rome, the last three wereundoubtedly of Etruscan origin, and their reigns left in the city manytraces of Etruscan influence. The Etruscans were great builders, andthe only buildings of importance that Rome possessed, until a muchlater period, were erected under this dynasty. The names of thesekings are said to have been LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, SERVIUSTULLIUS, his son-in-law, and LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS.
Under the first of these kings were built the fine temple of JUPITERCAPITOLÍNUS, on the Capitoline Hill, and near by shrines to JUNO andMINERVA. This temple to Jupiter was called the CAPITOLIUM, and from itwe get our word CAPITOL. It was looked upon as the centre of Romanreligion and authority, and at times the Senate was convened in it.
During this reign the famous CLOÁCA MAXIMA, or great sewer intended todrain the Campagna, is also said to have been constructed. This sewerwas so well built that it is still used.
Under the second king of this dynasty, Servius Tullius, the city wassurrounded with a wall, which included the Palatine, Quirínal,Coelian, and Aventine hills, and also the Janiculum, which was on theopposite side of the river, and connected with the city by a bridge(pons sublicius).
The establishment of the new military organization, mentioned in theprevious chapter, was attributed also to this king.
The pupil will notice the similarity between these reforms of Tulliusand those of Solon of Athens, who lived about the same time. Thusearly was the Greek influence felt at Rome.
During the reign of Tullius a temple in honor of DIÁNA was erected onthe Aventine, to be used by all the Latin towns.
Tarquinius Superbus added to the AGER ROMÁNUS the territory of thecity of GABII, and planted two military colonies, which wereafterwards lost. The dynasty of the Tarquins ended with the overthrowof this king, and a Republic was established, which lasted until thedeath of Julius Caesar.
CHAPTER VI.
At the close of the dynasty of the Tarquins, the regal form ofgovernment was abolished, and instead of one king who held office forlife, two officers, called CONSULS, were elected annually from thePATRICIANS, each of whom possessed supreme power, and acted as asalutary check upon the other; so that neither was likely to abuse hispower. This change took place towards the close of the sixth centurybefore Christ.
In times of great emergency a person called DICTATOR might beappointed by one of the Consuls, who should have supreme authority;but his tenure of office never exceeded six months, and he must be apatrician. He exercised his authority only outside of the city walls.It was at this time, about 500, that the COMITIA CENTURIÁTA came to bethe more important assembly, superseding in a great measure theCOMITIA CURIÁTA.
We must remember that in this assembly all criminal cases were tried,magistrates nominated, and laws adopted or rejected. We must notforget that, since it was on a property basis, it was under thecontrol of the patricians, for the great mass of plebeians were poor.Still there were many wealthy plebeians, and so far the assembly was again for this party.
About this time the Senate, which heretofore had consisted solely ofFathers of the families (Patres), admitted into its ranks someof the richest of the landed plebeians, and called them CONSCRIPTI.[Footnote: This is the origin of the phrase used by speakersaddressing the Senate, viz.: "_Patres (et) Consripti_"] These,however, could take no part in debates, nor could they holdmagistracies.
In the Senate, thus constituted, the nomination of all magistratesmade in the Comitia Centuriáta was confirmed or rejected. In this wayit controlled the election of the Consuls, whose duties, we mustremember, were those of generals and supreme judges, though everyRoman citizen had the privilege of appealing from their decision incases which involved life.
Two subordinate officers, chosen from the patricians, were appointedby the Consuls. These officers, called QUAESTÓRES, managed thefinances of the state, under the direction of the Senate.
The wars in which the Romans had been engaged, during the centurypreceding the establishment of the Republic, had impoverished thestate and crippled its commerce. This was felt by all classes, butespecially by the small landed plebeians whose fields had beendevastated. They were obliged to mortgage their property to pay thetaxes, and, when unable to meet the demands of their creditors,according to the laws they could be imprisoned, or even put to death.
The rich land-owners, on the other hand, increased their wealth by"farming" the public revenues; i.e. the state would let out to them,for a stipulated sum, the privilege of collecting all import and otherduties. These, in turn (called in later times Publicans), would extortall they could from the tax-payers, thus enriching themselvesunlawfully. So the hard times, the oppression of the tax-gatherer, andthe unjust law about debt, made the condition of the poor unendurable.
The military service, too, bore hard upon them. Many were obliged toserve more than their due time, and in a rank lower than was just; forthe Consuls, who had charge of the levy of troops, were patricians,and naturally favored their own party. Hence we see that the cavalryservice was at this time made up entirely of young patricians, whilethe older ones were in the reserve corps, so that the brunt ofmilitary duty fell on the plebeians.
This state of things could not last, and, as the opportunity forrebelling against this unjust and cruel oppression was offered, theplebeians were not slow in accepting it.
The city was at war with the neighboring Sabines, Aequians, andVolscians, and needed extra men for defence. One of the Consulsliberated all who were confined in prison for debt, and the danger wasaverted. Upon the return of the army, however, those who had been setfree were again thrown into prison. The next year the prisoners wereagain needed. At first they refused to obey, but were finallypersuaded by the Dictator. But after a well-earned victory, upon theirreturn to the city walls, the plebeians of the army deserted, and,marching to a hill near by, occupied it, threatening to found a newcity unless their wrongs were redressed. This is called the FirstSecession of the Plebs, and is said to have been in 494.
The patricians and richer plebeians saw that concessions must be made,for the loss of these people would be ruin to Rome. Those in debt werereleased from their obligations, and the plebeians received the rightto choose annually, from their own numbers, two officers calledTRIBÚNI PLEBIS, who should look after their interests, and have thepower of VETOING any action taken by any magistrate in the city. Thispower, however, was confined within the city walls, and could never beexercised outside of them.
The person of the Tribunes was also made sacred, to preventinterference with them while in discharge of their duties, and if anyone attempted to stop them he was committing a capital crime. Thus, ifthe Consuls or Quaestors were inclined to press the law of debt toextremes, or to be unjust in the levying of troops, the Tribunes couldstep in, and by their VETO stop the matter at once.
This was an immense gain for the plebeians, and they were justified ingiving the name of SACRED MOUNT to the hill to which they had seceded.
The number of Tribunes was afterwards increased to five, and stilllater to ten.
CHAPTER VII.
The next gain made by the plebeians was the annual appointment fromtheir own ranks of two officers, called AEDILES. [Footnote: The word"Aedile" is derived from Aedes, meaning temple.] These officersheld nearly the same position in reference to the Tribunes that theQuaestors did to the Consuls. They assisted the Tribunes in theperformance of their various duties, and also had special charge ofthe temple of Ceres. In this temple were deposited, for safe keeping,all the decrees of the Senate.
These two offices, those of Tribune and Aedile, the result of thefirst secession, were filled by elections held at first in the ComitiaCenturiáta, but later in an assembly called the COMITIA TRIBÚTA, whichmet sometimes within and sometimes without the city walls.
This assembly was composed of plebeians, who voted by "tribes"(tributa, meaning composed of tribes), each tribe beingentitled to one vote, and its vote being decided by the majority ofits individual voters. [Footnote: These "tribes" were a territorialdivision, corresponding roughly to "wards" in our cities. At this timethere were probably sixteen, but later there were thirty-five. Theplebeians in the city lived mostly in one quarter, on the AventineHill.]
The Comitia Tribúta was convened and presided over by the Tribunes andAediles. In it were discussed matters of interest to the plebeians. Byit any member could be punished for misconduct, and though at firstmeasures passed in it were not binding on the people at large, itpresently became a determined body, with competent and bold leaders,who were felt to be a power in the state.
The aim of the patricians was now to lessen the power of the Tribunes;that of the plebeians, to restrain the Consuls and extend theinfluence of the Tribunes. Party spirit ran high; even hand to handcontests occurred in the city. Many families left Rome and settled inneighboring places to escape the turmoil. It is a wonder that thegovernment withstood the strain, so fierce was the struggle.
The AGRARIAN LAWS at this time first become prominent. These laws hadreference to the distribution of the PUBLIC LANDS. Rome had acquired alarge amount of land taken from the territory of conquered cities.This land was called AGER PUBLICUS, or public land.
Some of this land was sold or given away as "homesteads," and then itbecame AGER PRIVÁTUS, or private land. But the most of it wasoccupied by permission of the magistrates. The occupants were usuallyrich patricians, who were favored by the patrician magistrates. Thisland, so occupied, was called AGER OCCUPÁTUS, or possessio; butit really was still the property of the state. The rent paid was acertain per cent (from 10 to 20) of the crops, or so much a head forcattle on pasture land. Although the state had the undoubted right toclaim this land at any time, the magistrates allowed the occupants toretain it, and were often lenient about collecting dues. In course oftime, this land, which was handed down from father to son, andfrequently sold, began to be regarded by the occupants as their ownproperty. Also the land tax (TRIBÚTUM), which was levied on allager privátus, and which was especially hard upon the smallplebeian land-owners, could not legally be levied upon the ageroccupátus. Thus the patricians who possessed, not owned, this landwere naturally regarded as usurpers by the plebeians.
The first object of the AGRARIAN LAWS was to remedy this evil.
SPURIUS CASSIUS, an able man, now came forward (486?), proposing a lawthat the state take up these lands, divide them into small lots, anddistribute them among the poor plebeians as homes (homesteads). Thelaw was carried, but in the troublesome times it cost Cassius hislife, and was never enforced.
CHAPTER VIII.
The plebeians were now (about 475) as numerous as the patricians, ifnot more so. Their organization had become perfected, and many oftheir leaders were persistent in their efforts to better the conditionof their followers. Their especial aim was to raise their civil andpolitical rights to an equality with those of the patricians. Thestruggle finally culminated in the murder of one of the Tribunes,Gnarus Genucius, for attempting to veto some of the acts of theConsuls.
VALERO PUBLILIUS, a Tribune, now (471) proposed and carried,notwithstanding violent opposition by the patricians, a measure to theeffect that the Tribunes should hereafter be chosen in the ComitiaTribúta, instead of the Comitia Centuriáta. Thus the plebeiansgained a very important step. This bill is called the PUBLILIAN LAW(Plebiscítum Publilium). [Footnote: All bills passed in the ComitiaTribúta were called Plebiscíta, and until 286 were not necessarilybinding upon the people at large; but this bill seems to have beenrecognized as a law.]
For the next twenty years the struggle continued unabated. Theplebeians demanded a WRITTEN CODE OF LAWS.
We find among all early peoples that the laws are at first theunwritten ones of custom and precedent. The laws at Rome, thus far,had been interpreted according to the wishes and traditions of thepatricians only. A change was demanded. This was obtained by theTERENTILIAN ROGATION, a proposal made in 461 by Gaius TerentiliusHarsa, a Tribune, to the effect that the laws thereafter be written.The patrician families, led by one Kaeso Quinctius, made bitteropposition. Kaeso himself, son of the famous Cincinnátus, wasimpeached by the Tribune and fled from the city.
Finally it was arranged that the Comitia Centuriáta should select fromthe people at large ten men, called the DECEMVIRATE, to hold officefor one year, to direct the government and supersede all othermagistrates, and especially to draw up a code of laws to be submittedto the people for approval. A commission of three patricians was sentto Athens to examine the laws of that city, which was now (454) at theheight of its prosperity. Two years were spent by this commission, andupon their return in 452 the above mentioned Decemvirate wasappointed.
The laws drawn up by this board were approved, engraved on ten tablesof copper, and placed in the Forum in front of the Senate-House. Twomore tables were added the next year. These TWELVE TABLES were theonly Roman code.
The DECEMVIRI should have resigned as soon as these laws wereapproved, but they neglected to do so, and began to act in a cruel andtyrannical manner. The people, growing uneasy under their injustice,finally rebelled when one of the Decemviri, Appius Claudius, passed asentence that brought an innocent maiden, Virginia, into his power.Her father, Virginius, saved his daughter's honor by stabbing her tothe heart, and fleeing to the camp called upon the soldiers to putdown such wicked government.
A second time the army deserted its leaders, and seceded to the SACREDMOUNT, where they nominated their own Tribunes. Then, marching intothe city, they compelled the Decemviri to resign.
The TWELVE TABLES have not been preserved, except in fragments, and weknow but little of their exact contents. The position of the debtorwas apparently made more endurable. The absolute control of thepater familias over his family was abolished. The closeconnection heretofore existing between the clients and patrons wasgradually relaxed, the former became less dependent upon the latter,and finally were absorbed into the body of the plebeians. Gentesamong the plebeians now began to be recognized; previously only thepatricians had been divided into gentes.
Thus we see, socially, the two orders were approaching nearer andnearer.
In 449 Valerius and Horatius were elected Consuls, and wereinstrumental in passing the so called VALERIO-HORATIAN laws, thesubstance of which was as follows:--
Two years later (447), the election of the Quaestors, who must stillbe patricians, was intrusted to the Comitia Tribúta. Heretofore theyhad been appointed by the Consuls.
In 445 the Tribune Canuleius proposed a bill which was passed, andcalled the CANULEIAN LAW, giving to the plebeians the right ofintermarriage (connubium) with the patricians, and enactingthat all issue of such marriages should have the rank of the father.
Canuleius also proposed another bill which he did not carry; viz. thatthe consulship be open to the plebeians. A compromise, however, wasmade, and it was agreed to suspend for a time the office of Consul,and to elect annually six MILITARY TRIBUNES in the Comitia Centuriáta,the office being open to all citizens. The people voted every yearwhether they should have consuls or military tribunes, and this customcontinued for nearly a half-century. The patricians, however, were soinfluential, that for a long time no plebeian was elected.
As an offset to these gains of the plebeians, the patricians in 435obtained two new officers, called CENSORS, elected from their ownranks every five years (lustrum) to hold office for eighteenmonths.
The duties of the Censors were:-
A few years later, in 421, the plebeians made another step forward byobtaining the right of electing one of their number as Quaestor. Therewere now four Quaestors.
Thus the patricians, in spite of the most obstinate resistance,sustained loss after loss. Even the rich plebeians, who had hithertooften found it for their interest to side with the patricians, joinedthe farmers or lower classes.
Finally, in 367, the Tribunes Licinius and Sextius proposed and passedthe following bills, called the LICINIAN ROGATIONS.
These rogations were a great gain for the poorer classes. It gave theman opportunity for labor which had previously been performed mostly byslaves. They were less burdened by debts, and had some prospect ofbecoming solvent. But most of all, since the office of Consul was opento them, they felt that their interests were now more likely to beprotected. The temple of CONCORDIA in the Forum was dedicated byCamillus as a mark of gratitude for the better times that theserogations promised.
The plebeians, however, did not stop until all the offices, exceptthat of Interrex, were thrown open to them. First they gainedthat of Dictator, then those of Censor and of Praetor, and finally, in286, by the law of HORTENSIUS, the plebiscita became binding upon allthe people without the sanction of the Senate and Comitia Centuriáta.After 200 the sacred offices of PONTIFEX and AUGUR also could befilled by plebeians.
Thus the strife that had lasted for two centuries was virtually ended;and although the Roman patricians still held aloof from the commons,yet their rights as citizens were no greater than those of theplebeians.
To recapitulate:--
Full citizenship comprised four rights, viz.: that of trading andholding property (COMMERCIUM); that of voting (SUFFRAGIUM); that ofintermarriage (CONNUBIUM); and that of holding office (HONORES).
The first of these rights the plebeians always enjoyed; the secondthey obtained in the establishment of the COMITIA TRIBÚTA; the thirdby the CANULEIAN BILL; the fourth by the LICINIAN and subsequentbills.
CHAPTER IX.
The first authentic history of Rome begins about 400. The city thenpossessed, possibly, three hundred square miles of territory. Thenumber of tribes had been increased to twenty-five. Later it becamethirty-five.
In 391 a horde of Celtic barbarians crossed the Apennines into Etruriaand attacked CLUSIUM. Here a Celtic chief was slain by Romanambassadors, who, contrary to the sacred character of their mission,were fighting in the ranks of the Etrurians. The Celts, in revenge,marched upon Rome. The disastrous battle of the ALLIA, a small riverabout eleven miles north of the city, was fought on July 18, 390. TheRomans were thoroughly defeated and their city lay at the mercy of thefoe. The Celts, however, delayed three days before marching upon Rome.Thus the people had time to prepare the Capitol for a siege, whichlasted seven months, when by a large sum of money the barbarians wereinduced to withdraw.
During this siege the records of the city's history were destroyed,and we have no trustworthy data for events that happened previous to390.
The city was quickly rebuilt and soon recovered from the blow. In 387the lost territory adjacent to the Tiber was annexed, and military colonieswere planted at Sutrium and Nepete upon the Etruscan border, andalso at Circeii and Setia. [Footnote: These military colonies, of whichthe Romans subsequently planted many, were outposts established toprotect conquered territory. A band of Roman citizens was armed andequipped, as if for military purposes. They took with them their wivesand children, slaves and followers, and established a local governmentsimilar to that of Rome. These colonists relinquished their rights asRoman citizens and became Latins; hence the name LATIN COLONIES.]The neighboring Latin town of TUSCULUM, which had always been afaithful ally, was annexed to Rome.
The trying times of these years had caused numerous enemies to springup all around Rome; but she showed herself superior to them all, untilfinally, in 353, she had subdued the whole of Southern Etruria, andgained possession of the town of CAERE, with most of its territory.The town was made a MUNICIPIUM, the first of its kind.
The inhabitants, being of foreign blood and language, were not allowedthe full rights of Roman citizenship, but were permitted to governtheir own city in local matters as they wished. Many towns weresubsequently made MUNICIPIA. Their inhabitants were called CIVES SINESUFFRAGIO, "citizens without suffrage."
During the next ten years (353-343) Rome subdued all the lowlandcountries as far south as TARRACÍNA. To the north, across the Tiber,she had acquired most of the territory belonging to VEII and CAPÉNA.
In 354 she formed her first connections beyond the Liris, by a treatywith the SAMNITES, a race that had established itself in themountainous districts of Central Italy. This people, spreading overthe southern half of Italy, had in 423 captured the Etruscan city ofCAPUA, and three years later the Greek city of CUMAE. Since then theyhad been practically masters of the whole of Campania.
After the treaty of 354 mentioned above, both the Romans and Samniteshad, independently of each other, been waging war upon the Volsci. TheSamnites went so far as to attack Teánum, a city of Northern Campania,which appealed to Capua for aid. The Samnites at once appeared beforeCapua, and she, unable to defend herself, asked aid of Rome.
Alarmed at the advances of the Samnites, Rome only awaited an excuseto break her treaty. This was furnished by the Capuans surrenderingtheir city unconditionally to Rome, so that, in attacking theSamnites, she would simply be defending her subjects.
Thus began the SAMNITE WARS, which lasted for over half a century withvarying success, and which were interrupted by two truces. It is usualto divide them into three parts, the First, Second, and Third SamniteWars.
The accounts of this war are so uncertain and confused that no clearidea of its details can be given. It resulted in no material advantageto either side, except that Rome retained Capua and made it amunicipium, annexing its territory to her own.
The cities of the LATIN CONFEDERACY had been for a long time looking withjealous eyes upon the rapid progress of Rome. Their own rightshad been disregarded, and they felt that they must now make a stand orlose everything. They sent to Rome a proposition that one of theConsuls and half of the Senate be Latins; but it was rejected. A warfollowed, in the third year of which was fought the battle ofTrigánum, near Mount Vesuvius. The Romans, with their Samnite allies,were victorious through the efforts of the Consul, TITUS MANLIUSTORQUÁTUS, one of the illustrious names of this still doubtful period.The remainder of the operations was rather a series of expeditionsagainst individual cities than a general war.
In 338 all the Latins laid down their arms, and the war closed. TheLatin confederacy was at an end. Rome now was mistress. Four of theLatin cities, TIBUR, PRAENESTE, CORA, and LAURENTUM, were leftindependent, but all the rest of the towns were annexed to Rome. Theirterritory became part of the Ager Románus, and the inhabitantsRoman plebeians.
Besides acquiring Latium, Rome also annexed, as municipia,three more towns, Fundi, Formiae, and Velítrae, a Volscian town.
LATIUM was now made to include all the country from the Tiber to theVolturnus.
Rome about this time established several MARITIME (Roman) COLONIES,which were similar to her MILITARY (Latin) COLONIES, except that thecolonists retained all their rights as Roman citizens, whereas themilitary colonists relinquished these rights and became Latins. Thefirst of these colonies was ANTIUM (338); afterwards were establishedTARRACÍNA (329), MINTURNAE, and SINUESSA (296). Others were afterwardsfounded.
Later, when Antium was changed into a military colony, its navy wasdestroyed, and the beaks (rostra) of its ships were taken toRome, and placed as ornaments on the speaker's stand opposite theSenate-House. Hence the name ROSTRA.
At this time the FORUM, which had been used for trading purposes ofall kinds, was improved and beautified. It became a centre forpolitical discussions and financial proceedings. The bankers andbrokers had their offices here. Smaller Fora were started nearthe river, as the Forum Boarium (cattle market) and theForum Holitorium (vegetable market).
Maenius, one of the Censors, was chiefly instrumental in bringingabout these improvements.
The results of the First Samnite War and the Latin War were, as wehave seen, to break up the Latin confederacy, and enlarge the domainof Rome.
There were now in Italy three races aiming at the supremacy, theRomans, the Samnites, and the Etruscans. The last of these was theweakest, and had been declining ever since the capture by the Romansof Veii in 396, and of Caere in 353.
In the contest which followed between Rome and the Samnites, thecombatants were very nearly matched. Rome had her power more compactand concentrated, while the Samnites were superior in numbers, butwere more scattered. They were both equally brave.
During the first five years of the war (326-321), the Romans wereusually successful, and the Samnites were forced to sue for peace. Inthis period Rome gained no new territory, but founded a number ofmilitary posts in the enemy's country.
The peace lasted for about a year, when hostilities were againrenewed. By this time the Samnites had found a worthy leader in GaviusPontius, by whose skill and wisdom the fortune of war was turnedagainst the Romans for seven years (321-315). He allured the Romansinto a small plain, at each end of which was a defile (FurculaeCaudinae). On reaching this plain they found Pontius strongly postedto oppose them. After a bloody but fruitless attempt to force him toretreat, the Romans themselves were compelled to give way. Butmeanwhile Pontius had also occupied the defile in their rear, and theywere obliged to surrender.
A treaty was signed by the Consuls Titus Veturius and SpuriusPostumius, according to which peace was to be made, and everythingrestored to its former condition.
Such was the affair at the Caudine Forks (321), one of the mosthumiliating defeats that ever befell the Roman arms. The army was madeto pass under the yoke,--which was made of three spears, two stuckinto the ground parallel to each other and the third placed abovethem,--and then suffered to depart.
Rome was filled with dismay at the news. The citizens dressed inmourning, business and amusements were suspended, and every energy wasdevoted to repairing the disaster. Compliance with the terms of thetreaty was refused, on the ground that no treaty was valid unlesssanctioned by a vote of the people. It was determined to deliver theConsuls who had signed it to the enemy.
Pontius, indignant at the broken faith, refused to accept them, andthe war was renewed. It continued for seven years, when (310) theSamnites were so thoroughly whipped by QUINTUS FABIUS, then Dictator,at LAKE VADIMÓNIS in Etruria, that they could no longer make anyeffective resistance, and at last (304) agreed to relinquish all theirsea-coast, their alliances and conquests, and acknowledge thesupremacy of Rome.
During this war the Etruscans made their last single effort againstthe Roman power. An expedition was sent in 311 to attack the militarycolony of Sutrium, which had been founded seventy-six years before.The Consul Quintus Fabius went to the rescue, raised the siege, drovethe Etruscans into the Ciminian forests, and there completely defeatedthem.
Six years intervened between the Second and the THIRD SAMNITE WAR(298-290). This time was employed by the Samnites in endeavoring tounite Italy against Rome. They were joined by the UMBRIANS, GAULS, andETRUSCANS. The LUCANIANS alone were with Rome.
The war was of short duration, and was practically decided by thesanguinary battle of SENTINUM (295) in Umbria. The Samnites, led byGellius Egnatius, were routed by the Roman Consuls QUINTUS FABIUSMAXIMUS and PUBLIUS DECIUS MUS.
In this battle the struggle was long and doubtful. The Samnites wereassisted by the Gauls, who were showing themselves more than a matchfor the part of the Roman army opposed to them, and commanded byDecius. Following the example of his illustrious father, the Consulvowed his life to the Infernal Gods if victory were granted, and,rushing into the midst of the enemy, was slain. [Footnote: It is saidthat the father of Decius acted in a similar manner in a battle of theLatin war.] His soldiers, rendered enthusiastic by his example,rallied and pushed back the Gauls. The victory was now complete, forthe Samnites were already fleeing before that part of the army whichwas under Fabius.
The war dragged on for five years, when the Consul MANIUS CURIUSDENTÁTUS finally crushed the Samnites, and also the SABINES, who hadrecently joined them. The Samnites were allowed their independence,and became allies of Rome. The Sabines were made Roman citizens(sine suffragio), and their territory was annexed to theAger Románus. This territory now reached across Italy from theTuscan to the Adriatic Sea, separating the Samnites and other nationson the south from the Umbrians, Gauls, and Etruscans on the north.
In 283, at Lake Vadimónis, the Romans defeated the Senonian and BoianGauls, and founded the military colony of SENA GALLICA.
CHAPTER X.
In the early times of Rome, while she was but little known, it hadbeen the custom of Greece to send colonies away to relieve thepressure of too rapid increase. We find them in Spain, France, AsiaMinor, and especially in Sicily and Southern Italy, where the countrybecame so thoroughly Grecianized that it was called MAGNA GRAECIA.Here were many flourishing cities, as Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton, andThurii. These had, at the time of their contact with Rome, greatlyfallen from their former grandeur, owing partly to the inroads ofbarbarians from the north, partly to civil dissensions, and still moreto their jealousy of each other; so that they were unable to opposeany firm and united resistance to the progress of Rome. It had beentheir custom to rely largely upon strangers for the recruiting andmanagement of their armies,--a fact which explains in part the easewith which they were overcome.
Of these cities TARENTUM was now the chief. With it a treaty had beenmade by which the Tarentines agreed to certain limits beyond whichtheir fleet was not to pass, and the Romans bound themselves not toallow their vessels to appear in the Gulf of Tarentum beyond theLacinian promontory. As usual, the Romans found no difficulty inevading their treaty whenever it should profit them.
Thurii was attacked by the Lucanians, and, despairing of aid fromTarentum, called on Rome for assistance. As soon as domesticaffairs permitted, war was declared against the Lucanians, and thewedge was entered which was to separate Magna Graecia from Hellas, anddeliver the former over to Rome.
Pretending that the war was instigated by Tarentum, Rome decided toignore the treaty, and sent a fleet of ten vessels into the Bay ofTarentum. It was a gala day, and the people were assembled in thetheatre that overlooked the bay when the ships appeared. It wasdetermined to punish the intrusion. A fleet was manned, and four ofthe Roman squadron were destroyed.
An ambassador, Postumius, sent by Rome to demand satisfaction, wastreated with insult and contempt. He replied to the mockery of theTarentines, that their blood should wash out the stain. The next yearone of the Consuls was ordered south.
Meanwhile Tarentum had sent envoys to ask aid of PYRRHUS, the youngand ambitious KING OF EPÍRUS. He was cousin of Alexander the Great,and, since he had obtained no share in the division of the conquestsof this great leader, his dream was to found an empire in the Westthat would surpass the exhausted monarchies of the East.
Pyrrhus landed in Italy in 281 with a force of 20,000 infantry, 3,000cavalry, and 20 elephants. He at once set about compelling theeffeminate Greeks to prepare for their own defence. Places ofamusement were closed; the people were forced to perform militaryduty; disturbers of the public safety were put to death; and otherreforms were made which the dangers of the situation seemed to demand.Meanwhile the Romans acted with promptness, and boldly challenged himto battle. The armies met in 280 on the plain of HERACLÉA, on thebanks of the Liris, where the level nature of the country was in favorof the Greek method of fighting. The Macedonian phalanx was the mostperfect instrument of warfare the world had yet seen, and the Romanlegions had never yet been brought into collision with it.
The Romans, under LAEVÍNUS, were defeated, more by the surprise of acharge of elephants than by the tactics of the phalanx. However, theyretired in good order. Pyrrhus is said to have been much impressed bythe heroic conduct of the foe, and to have said, "Another such victorywill send me back without a man to Epirus." He recognized the inferiorqualities of his Greek allies, and determined to make a peace. Atrusted messenger, CINEAS, was sent to Rome. He was noted for hiseloquence, which was said to have gained more for his master than thesword. Through him Pyrrhus promised to retire to Epirus if safety wasguaranteed to his allies in Italy.
The eloquence of Cineas was fortified with presents for the Senators;and though these were refused, many seemed disposed to treat with him,when the aged APPIUS CLAUDIUS CAECUS (Blind) was led into the Senate,and declared that Rome should never treat with an enemy in arms.
Cineas was deeply impressed by the dignity of the Romans, and declaredthat the Senators were an assembly of kings and Rome itself a temple.
Pyrrhus then tried force, and, hastily advancing northward, appearedwithin eighteen miles of the city. Here his danger became great. Thedefection he had hoped for among the Latins did not take place, andthe armies which had been operating elsewhere were now ready to uniteagainst him. He therefore retired into winter quarters at Tarentum,where he received the famous embassy of GAIUS FABRICIUS, sent topropose an interchange of prisoners. It was in vain that bribes andthreats were employed to shake the courage of the men sent by theSenate; and, on his part, Pyrrhus refused to grant the desiredexchange.
Many Italian nations now joined Pyrrhus, and hostilities were renewed.The armies again met in 279 on the plain of ASCULUM, in Apulia; butthough the Romans were defeated, it was only another of those Pyrrhicvictories which were almost as disastrous as defeat.
The same year Pyrrhus retired to Sicily to defend Syracuse against theCarthaginians, who were allied to the Romans. He remained on theisland three years. Upon his return to Italy he met the Romans for thelast time in 274, near BENEVENTUM, where he was defeated by the ConsulMANIUS CURIOUS DENTÁTUS. The Romans had by this time become accustomedto the elephants, and used burning arrows against them. The woundedbeasts became furious and unmanageable, and threw the army intodisorder. With this battle ended the career of Pyrrhus in Italy. Hereturned home, and two years later was accidentally killed by a womanat Argos.
The departure of Pyrrhus left all Italy at the mercy of Rome. Twoyears later, in 272, the garrison at Tarentum surrendered, the citywalls were demolished, and the fleet given up.
CHAPTER XI.
Rome was now mistress of all Italy south of the Arnus and Aesis. Thiscountry was divided into two parts.
The Ager Románus was subdivided, for voting and financialpurposes, into thirty-three, afterwards thirty-five districts(tribes), four of which were in Rome. The elections were all held atRome.
These districts were made up,--
The DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES were made up,--
These allies were allowed local government, were not obliged to paytribute, but were called upon to furnish their proportion of troopsfor the Roman army.
The inhabitants of this country were divided into five classes, viz.--
To class a belonged the citizens of Rome, of the Romancolonies, and of some of the Municipia.
To class b belonged the citizens of most of the Municipia, whopossessed only private rights, the citizens of all the Praefectúrae,and the citizens of all the Latin colonies.
Even at this early date, the necessity of easy communication with thecapital seems to have been well understood. Roads were pushed in everydirection,--broad, level ways, over which armies might be marched orintelligence quickly carried. They were chains which bound herpossessions indissolubly together. Some of them remain today amonument of Roman thoroughness, enterprise, and sagacity,--the wonderand admiration of modern road-builders. By these means did Rome fastentogether the constantly increasing fabric of her empire, so that noteven the successes of Hannibal caused more than a momentary shaking offidelity, for which ample punishment was both speedy and certain.
The three most noted men of the period embraced in the two precedingchapters were Appius Claudius, the Censor and patrician; and ManiusCurius Dentátus and Gaius Fabricius, plebeians.
We have seen that all plebeians who were land-owners belonged to oneof the tribes, and could vote in the Comitia Tribúta; this,however, shut out the plebeians of the city who owned no land, andalso the freedmen, who were generally educated and professional men,such as doctors, teachers, etc.
APPIUS CLAUDIUS as Censor, in 312, deprived the landowners of theexclusive privilege of voting in the Comitia Tribúta, and gaveto property owners of any sort the right to vote. Eight years laterthis law was modified, so that it applied to the four city tribesalone, and the thirty-one rural tribes had for their basis landedproperty only.
During the censorship of Appius, Rome had its first regular watersupply by the Appian aqueduct. The first military road, the VIA APPIA,was built under his supervision. This road ran at first from Rome asfar as Capua. It was constructed so well that many parts of it aretoday in good condition. The road was afterward extended toBrundisium, through Venusia and Tarentum.
MANIUS CURIUS DENTÁTUS was a peasant, a contemporary of Appius, andhis opponent in many ways. He was a strong friend of the plebeians. Heobtained for the soldiers large assignments of the AgerPublicus. He drained the low and swampy country near Reáte by acanal. He was the conqueror of Pyrrhus. A man of sterling qualities,frugal and unostentatious, after his public life he retired to hisfarm and spent the remainder of his days in seclusion as a simplepeasant.
GAIUS FABRICIUS, like Dentátus, was from the peasants. He was aHernican. As a soldier he was successful. As a statesman he wasincorruptible, and of great use to his country. Previous to the battleof Asculum, Pyrrhus attempted to bribe him by large sums of money,and, failing in this, thought to frighten him by hiding an elephantbehind a curtain; the curtain was suddenly removed, but Fabricius,though immediately under the elephant's trunk, stood unmoved.
In this generation we find Roman character at its best. Wealth had notflowed into the state in such large quantities as to corrupt it. Thegreat mass of the people were peasants, small land-owners, of frugalhabits and moral qualities. But comparatively few owned large estatesas yet, or possessed large tracts of the Ager Publicus. Acentury later, when most of the available land in the peninsula washeld by the wealthy and farmed by slaves, we find a great change.
The fall of TARENTUM marks an important era in Roman history. Largetreasures were obtained from this and other Greek cities in SouthernItaly. Luxury became more fashionable; morals began to degenerate.Greed for wealth obtained by plunder began to get possession of theRomans. From now on the moral tone of the people continued todegenerate in proportion as their empire increased.
CHAPTER XII.
ROME AND CARTHAGE.--FIRST PUNIC WAR. (264-241.) [Footnote: Theword "Punic" is derived from Phoenici. The Carthaginians weresaid to have come originally from PHOENICIA, on the eastern coast ofthe Mediterranean. Their first ruler was Dido. The Latin student is ofcourse familiar with Virgil's story of Dido and Aenéas.]
While Rome was gradually enlarging her territory from Latium to theStraits of Messána, on the other shore of the Mediterranean, oppositeItaly and less than one hundred miles from Sicily, sprang up, throughindustry and commerce, the Carthaginian power.
Like Rome, Carthage had an obscure beginning. As in the case of Rome,it required centuries to gain her power.
It was the policy of Carthage to make a successful revolt of hersubdued allies an impossibility, by consuming all their energies inthe support of her immense population and the equipment of hernumerous fleets and armies. Hence all the surrounding tribes, oncewandering nomads, were forced to become tillers of the soil; and, withcolonies sent out by herself, they formed the so called Libyo-Phoenician population, open to the attack of all, and incapable ofdefence. Thus the country around Carthage was weak, and the moment aforeign enemy landed in Africa the war was merely a siege of its chiefcity.
The power of Carthage lay in her commerce. Through her hands passedthe gold and pearls of the Orient; the famous Tyrian purple; ivory,slaves, and incense of Arabia; the silver of Spain; the bronze ofCyprus; and the iron of Elba.
But the harsh and gloomy character of the people, their cruelreligion, which sanctioned human sacrifice, their disregard of therights of others, their well known treachery, all shut them off fromthe higher civilization of Rome and Greece.
The government of Carthage was an ARISTOCRACY. A council composed of afew of high birth, and another composed of the very wealthy, managedthe state. Only in times of extraordinary danger were the peoplesummoned and consulted.
Rome had made two treaties with Carthage; one immediately after theestablishment of the Republic, in 500, the other about 340. By thesetreaties commerce was allowed between Rome and its dependencies andCarthage and her possessions in Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. But theRomans were not to trade in Spain, or sail beyond the Bay of Carthage.
In leaving Sicily, Pyrrhus had exclaimed, "What a fine battle-fieldfor Rome and Carthage!" If Carthage were mistress of this island, Romewould be shut up in her peninsula; if Rome were in possession of it,"the commerce of Carthage would be intercepted, and a good breeze ofone night would carry the Roman fleets to her walls".
At this time the island was shared by three powers,--HIERO, king ofSyracuse, the CARTHAGINIANS, and the MAMERTINES, a band of brigandswho came from Campania. The latter, making Messána their head-quarters, had been pillaging all of the island that they could reach.Being shut up in Messána by Hiero, they asked aid of Rome on theground that they were from Campania. Although Rome was in alliancewith Hiero, and had but recently executed 300 mercenaries for doing inRhegium what the Mamertines had done in Sicily,--she determined to aidthem, for Sicily was a rich and tempting prey.
Meanwhile, however, through the intervention of the Carthaginians, atruce had been formed between Hiero and the brigands, and the siege ofMessána was raised. The city itself was occupied by a fleet andgarrison of Carthaginians under HANNO, The Romans, though theMamertines no longer needed their aid, landed at Messána and dislodgedthe Carthaginians,
Thus opened the FIRST PUNIC WAR. The Romans at once formed a doublealliance with Syracuse and Messána, thus gaining control of theeastern coast of Sicily and getting their first foothold outside ofItaly.
The most important inland city of Sicily was AGRIGENTUM. Here theCarthaginians the next year (262) concentrated their forces underHANNIBAL, son of Cisco. The Romans besieged the city, but werethemselves cut off from supplies by Hanno, who landed at Heracléa intheir rear. Both besieged and besiegers suffered much. At last abattle was fought (262), in which the Romans were victorious, owing totheir superior infantry. Agrigentum fell, and only a few strongholdson the coast were left to the Carthaginians.
The Romans now began to feel the need of a fleet. That of Carthageruled the sea without a rival: it notonly controlled many of theseaports of Sicily, but also threatened Italy itself. With their usualenergy, the Romans began the work. [Footnote: In 259, three yearsprevious to the battle of Ecnomus, the Romans under Lucius Scipiocaptured Blesia, a seaport of Corsica, and established there a navalstation.] A wrecked Carthaginian vessel was taken as a model, and bythe spring of 260 a navy of 120 sail was ready for sea.
The ships were made the more formidable by a heavy iron beak, for thepurpose of running down and sinking the enemy's vessels; a kind ofhanging stage was also placed on the prow of the ship, which could belowered in front or on either side. It was furnished on both sideswith parapets, and had space for two men in front. On coming to closequarters with the enemy, this stage was quickly lowered and fastenedto the opposing ship by means of grappling irons; thus the Romanmarines were enabled to board with ease their opponents' ship, andfight as if on land.
Four naval battles now followed: 1st, near LIPARA (260); 2d, off MYLAE(260); 3d, off TYNDARIS (257); 4th, off ECNOMUS (256).
In the first of these only seventeen ships of the Romans were engagedunder the CONSUL GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO. The fleet with its commanderwas captured.
In the second engagement, off Mylae, all the Roman fleet under GAIUSDUILIUS took part. The Carthaginians were led by Hannibal, son ofGisco. The newly invented stages or boarding-bridges of the Romanswere found to be very effective. The enemy could not approach nearwithout these bridges descending with their grappling irons andholding them fast to the Romans. The Carthaginians were defeated, withthe loss of nearly half their fleet.
A bronze column, ornamented with the beaks of the captured vessels,was erected at Rome in honor of this victory of Duilius. The pedestalof it is still standing, and on it are inscribed some of the oldestinscriptions in the Latin language.
The third engagement, off Tyndaris, resulted in a drawn battle.
In the fourth engagement, off Ecnomus, the Carthaginians had 350 sail.Thirty Carthaginian and twenty-four Roman vessels were sunk, andsixty-four of the former captured. The Punic fleet withdrew to thecoast of Africa, and prepared in the Bay of Carthage for anotherbattle. But the Romans sailed to the eastern side of the peninsulawhich helps to form the bay, and there landed without opposition.
MARCUS ATILIUS REGULUS was put in command of the Roman forces inAfrica. For a time he was very successful, and the Carthaginiansbecame disheartened. Many of the towns near Cartilage surrendered, andthe capital itself was in danger. Peace was asked, but the termsoffered were too humiliating to be accepted.
Regulus, who began to despise his opponents, remained inactive atTunis, near Carthage, neglecting even to secure a line of retreat tohis fortified camp at Clupea. The next spring (255) he was surprised,his army cut to pieces, and he himself taken prisoner. He subsequentlydied a captive at Carthage.
The Romans, learning of this defeat, sent a fleet of 350 sail torelieve their comrades who were shut up in Clupea. While on its way,it gained a victory over the Carthaginian fleet off the Herméanpromontory, sinking 114 of the enemy's ships.
It arrived at Clupea in time to save its friends. The war in Africawas now abandoned. The fleet, setting sail for home, was partlydestroyed in a storm, only eighty ships reaching port.
Hostilities continued for six years without any great results.Panormus was taken in 254; the coast of Africa ravaged in 253;Thermae and the island of Lipara were taken in 252, and Eryx in 249.
DREPANA and LILYBAEUM were now the only places in Sicily, held byCarthage. A regular siege of Lilybaeum was decided upon, and the citywas blockaded by land and sea; but the besieging party suffered asmuch as the besieged, its supplies were frequently cut off by thecavalry of the Carthaginians, and its ranks began to be thinned bydisease.
The Consul, Publius Claudius, who had charge of the siege, determinedto surprise the Carthaginian fleet, which was stationed at Drepana(249). He was unsuccessful, and lost three fourths of his vessels.Another fleet of 120 sail sent to aid him was wrecked in a violentstorm.
The Romans were now in perplexity. The war had lasted fifteen years.Four fleets had been lost, and one sixth of the fighting population.They had failed in Africa, and the two strongest places in Sicily werestill in the enemy's hands. For six years more the war dragged on(249-243).
A new Carthaginian commander, HAMILCAR BARCA (Lightning), meanwhiletook the field in Sicily. He was a man of great activity and militarytalent, and the Romans at first were no match for him. He seemed in afair way to regain all Sicily. The apathy of the Senate was so great,that at last some private citizens built and manned at their ownexpense a fleet of 200 sail.
GAIUS LUTATIUS CATALUS, the Consul in command, surprised the enemy andoccupied the harbors of Drepana and Lilybaeum in 242. A Carthaginianfleet which came to the rescue was met and destroyed off the AEGÁTESINSULAE in 241. Hamilcar was left in Sicily without support andsupplies. He saw that peace must be made.
Sicily was surrendered. Carthage agreed to pay the cost of the war,--about $3,000,000,--one third down, and the remainder in ten annualpayments. Thus ended the First Punic War.
CHAPTER XIII.
Twenty-three years elapsed between the First and Second Punic Wars.The Carthaginians were engaged during the first part of this time incrushing a mutiny of their mercenary troops.
Rome, taking advantage of the position in which her rival was placed,seized upon SARDINIA and CORSICA, and, when Carthage objected,threatened to renew the war, and obliged her to pay more than onemillion dollars as a fine (237).
The acquisition of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica introduced into thegovernment of Rome a new system; viz. the PROVINCIAL SYSTEM.
Heretofore the two chief magistrates of Rome, the Consuls, hadexercised their functions over all the Roman possessions. Now Sicilywas made what the Romans called a provincia, or PROVINCE.Sardinia and Corsica formed another province (235).
Over each province was placed a Roman governor, called Proconsul. Forthis purpose two new Praetors were now elected, making four in all.The power of the governor was absolute; he was commander in chief,chief magistrate, and supreme judge.
The finances of the provinces were intrusted to one or more QUAESTORS.All the inhabitants paid as taxes into the Roman treasury one tenth oftheir produce, and five per cent of the value of their imports andexports. They were not obliged to furnish troops, as were thedependants of Rome in Italy.
The provincial government was a fruitful source of corruption. As themorals of the Romans degenerated, the provinces were plundered withoutmercy to enrich the coffers of the avaricious governors.
The Adriatic Sea at this time was overrun by Illyrican pirates, whodid much damage. Satisfaction was demanded by Rome of Illyricum, butto no purpose. As a last resort, war was declared, and the sea wascleared of the pirates in 229.
"The results of this Illyrican war did not end here, for it was themeans of establishing, for the first time, direct political relationsbetween Rome and the states of Greece, to many of which thesuppression of piracy was of as much importance as to Rome herself.Alliances were concluded with CORCÝRA, EPIDAMNUS, and APOLLONIA; andembassies explaining the reasons which had brought Roman troops intoGreece were sent to the Aetolians and Achaeans, to Athens and Corinth.The admission of the Romans to the Isthmian Games in 228 formallyacknowledged them as the allies of the Greek states."
The Romans now began to look with hungry eyes upon GALLIA CISALPÍNA.The appetite for conquest was well whetted. There had been peace withthe Gauls since the battle of Lake Vadimónis in 283. The agerpublicus, taken from the Gauls then, was still mostly unoccupied.In 232 the Tribune Gaius Flaminius [Footnote: Gaius Flaminius, by hisagrarian laws gained the bitter hatred of the nobility. He was the firstGovernor of Sicily, and there showed himself to be a man of integrity andhonesty, a great contrast to many who succeeded him.] carried an agrarianlaw, to the effect that this land be given to the veterans and the poorerclasses. The law was executed, and colonies planted. To the Gauls thisseemed but the first step to the occupation of the whole of theircountry. They all rose in arms except the Cenománi.
This contest continued for ten years, and in 225 Etruria was invadedby an army of 70,000 men. The plans of the invaders, however,miscarried, and they were hemmed in between two Roman armies nearTELAMON in 222, and annihilated. The Gallic king was slain at thehands of the Consul MARCUS CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS. PAGE 61 Rome was nowmistress of the whole peninsula of Italy, excepting some tribes inLiguria, who resisted a short time longer.
Three military (Latin) colonies were founded to hold the Gaulsin check; PLACENTIA and CREMÓNA in the territory of the Insubres, andMUTINA in that of the Boii. The Via Flaminia, the greatnorthern road, was extended from SPOLETIUM to ARIMINUM. [Footnote:During this period the Comitia Centuriáta was reorganized on thebasis of tribes (35) instead of money.]
Meanwhile Carthage was not idle. After subduing the revolt of themercenaries in 237, she formed the project of obtaining SPAIN ascompensation for the loss of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. HamilcarBarca, by energetic measures, established (236-228) a firm foothold inSouthern and Southeastern Spain.
At his death, his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, continued his work. Manytowns were founded, trade prospered, and agriculture flourished. Thediscovery of rich silver mines near Carthago Nova was a means ofenriching the treasury. After the assassination of Hasdrubal, in 220,the ablest leader was Hannibal, son of Hamilcar. Although a young manof but twenty-eight, he had had a life of varied experience. As a boyhe had shown great courage and ability in camp under his father. Hewas a fine athlete, well educated in the duties of a soldier, andcould endure long privation of sleep and food. For the last few yearshe had been in command of the cavalry, and had distinguished himselffor personal bravery, as well as by his talents as a leader.
Hannibal resolved to begin the inevitable struggle with Rome at once.He therefore laid siege to Saguntum, a Spanish town allied to Rome. Ineight months the place was compelled to capitulate (219).
When Rome demanded satisfaction of Carthage for this insult, anddeclared herself ready for war, the Carthaginians accepted thechallenge, and the Second Punic War began in 218.
CHAPTER XIV.
OF CANNAE. (218-216.)
In the spring of 218 Hannibal started from Carthágo Nova to invadeItaly. His army consisted of 90,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 37elephants. His march to the Pyrenees occupied two months, owing to theopposition of the Spanish allies of Rome. Hannibal now sent back apart of his troops, retaining 50,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry, allveterans. With these he crossed the mountains, and marched along thecoast by Narbo (Narbonne) and Nemansus (Nîmes), through the Celticterritory, with little opposition. The last of July found him on thebanks of the Rhone, opposite Avenio (Avignon). The Romans wereastonished at the rapidity of his movements.
The Consuls of the year were SCIPIO and SEMPRONIUS. The former hadbeen in Northern Italy, leisurely collecting forces to attack Hannibalin Spain; the latter was in Sicily, making preparations to invadeAfrica. Scipio set sail for Spain, touching at Massilia near the endof June. Learning there for the first time that Hannibal had alreadyleft Spain, he hoped to intercept him on the Rhone. The Celtic tribesof the neighborhood were won over to his side. Troops collected fromthese were stationed along the river, but Scipio's main army remainedat Massilia. It was Hannibal's policy to cross the river before Scipioarrived with his troops. He obtained all the boats possible, andconstructed numerous rafts to transport his main body of troops. Adetachment of soldiers was sent up the river with orders to cross atthe first available place, and, returning on the opposite bank, tosurprise the Celtic forces in the rear. The plan succeeded. The Celtsfled in confusion, and the road to the Alps was opened. Thus Scipiowas outgeneralled in the very beginning.
His course now should have been to return to Northern Italy with allhis forces, and take every means to check Hannibal there. Instead, hesent most of his troops to Spain under his brother Gnaeus Scipio, andhimself, with but a few men, set sail for Pisae.
Meanwhile Hannibal hurried up the valley of the Rhone, across theIsara, through the fertile country of the Allobroges, arriving, insixteen days from Avenio, at the pass of the first Alpine range (Montdu Chat). Crossing this with some difficulty, owing to the nature ofthe country and the resistance of the Celts, he hastened on throughthe country of the Centrónes, along the north bank of the Isara. As hewas leaving this river and approaching the pass of the Little St.Bernard, he was again attacked by the Celts, and obliged to make theascent amidst continual and bloody encounters. After toiling a day anda night, however, the army reached the summit of the pass. Here, on atable-land, his troops were allowed a brief rest.
The hardships of the descent were fully as great, and the fertilevalley of the Po was a welcome sight to the half-famished andexhausted soldiers. Here they encamped, in September, and recruitedtheir wearied energies.
This famous march of Hannibal from the Rhone lasted thirty-three days,and cost him 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry.
The Romans were still unprepared to meet Hannibal. One army was inSpain under Gnaeus Scipio; the other in Sicily, on its way to Africa,under the Consul Sempronius. The only troops immediately availablewere a few soldiers that had been left in the valley of the Po torestrain the Gauls, who had recently shown signs of defection.
Publius Cornelius Scipio, upon his return from Massilia, took commandof these. He met Hannibal first in October, 218, near the riverTicinus, a tributary of the Po. A cavalry skirmish followed, in whichhe was wounded and rescued by his son, a lad of seventeen, afterwardsthe famous Africanus. The Romans were discomfited, with considerableloss.
They then retreated, crossing the Po at Placentia, and destroying thebridge behind them. Hannibal forded the river farther up, and marchedalong its right bank until he reached its confluence with the Trebia,opposite Placentia. Here he encamped.
Meanwhile Sempronius, who had been recalled from Sicily, relieved thedisabled Scipio.
Early one raw morning in December, 218, the vanguard of theCarthaginians was ordered to cross the Trebia, and, as soon anyresistance was met, to retreat. The other troops of Hannibal weredrawn up ready to give the enemy a hot reception, if, as he expected,they should pursue his retreating vanguard. Sempronius was caught inthe trap, and all his army, except one division of 10,000, was cut topieces. The survivors took refuge in Placentia and Cremona, where theyspent the winter. Sempronius himself escaped to Rome.
The result of TREBIA was the insurrection of all the Celtic tribes inthe valley of the Po, who increased Hannibal's army by 60,000 infantryand 4,000 cavalry. While the Carthaginian was wintering nearPlacentia, the Romans stationed troops to guard the two highwaysleading north from Rome and ending at Arretium and Ariminum, TheConsuls for this year were GAIUS FLAMINIUS and GNAEUS SERVILIUS. Theformer occupied Arretium, the latter Ariminum. Here they were joinedby the troops that had wintered at Placentia.
In the spring, Hannibal, instead of attempting to pursue his march byeither of the highways which were fortified, outflanked the Romans byturning aside into Etruria. His route led through a marshy andunhealthy country, and many soldiers perished. Hannibal himself lostan eye from ophthalmia. When he had arrived at Faesulae a report ofhis course first reached Flaminius, who at once broke camp andendeavored to intercept his enemy. Hannibal, however, had the start,and was now near LAKE TRASIMÉNUS.
Here was a pass with a high hill on one side and the lake on theother. Hannibal, with the flower of his infantry, occupied the hill.His light-armed troops and horsemen were drawn up in concealment oneither side.
The Roman column advanced (May, 217), without hesitation, to theunoccupied pass, the thick morning mist completely concealing theposition of the enemy. As the Roman vanguard approached the hill,Hannibal gave the signal for attack. The cavalry closed up theentrance to the pass, and at the same time the mist rolled away,revealing the Carthaginian arms on the right and left. It was not abattle, but a mere rout. The main body of the Romans was cut topieces, with scarcely any resistance, and the Consul himself waskilled. Fifteen thousand Romans fell, and as many more were captured.The loss of the Carthaginians was but 1,500, and was confined mostlyto the Gallic allies. All Etruria was lost, and Hannibal could marchwithout hindrance upon Rome, whose citizens, expecting the enemydaily, tore down the bridges over the Tiber and prepared for a siege.QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS was appointed Dictator.
Hannibal, however, did not march upon Rome, but turned through Umbria,devastating the country as he went. Crossing the Apennines, he haltedon the shores of the Adriatic, in Picénum. After giving his army arest, he proceeded along the coast into Southern Italy.
The Romans, seeing that the city was not in immediate danger, raisedanother army, and placed the Dictator in command. Fabius was a man ofdetermination and firmness, well advanced in years. He determined toavoid a pitched battle, but to dog the steps of the enemy, harassinghim and cutting off his supplies as far as possible.
Meanwhile Hannibal again crossed the mountains into the heart of Italyto Beneventum, and from there to Capua, the largest Italian citydependent upon Rome. The Dictator followed, condemning his soldiers tothe melancholy task of looking on in inaction, while the enemy'scavalry plundered their faithful allies. Finally, Fabius obtained whathe considered a favorable opportunity for an attack. Hannibal,disappointed in his expectations that Capua would be friendly to him,and not being prepared to lay siege to the town, had withdrawn towardsthe Adriatic. Fabius intercepted him near Casilinum, in Campania, onthe left bank of the Volturnus. The heights that commanded the rightbank of the river were occupied by his main army; and the road itself,which led across the river, was guarded by a strong division of men.
Hannibal, however, ordered his light-armed troops to ascend theheights over the road during the night, driving before them oxen withburning fagots tied to their horns, giving the appearance of an armymarching by torchlight. The plan was successful. The Romans abandonedthe road and marched for the heights, along which they supposed theenemy were going. Hannibal, with a clear road before him, continuedhis march with the bulk of his army. The next morning he recalled hislight-armed troops, which had been sent on to the hills with the oxen.Their engagement with the Romans had resulted in a severe loss toFabius.
Hannibal then proceeded, without opposition, in a northeasterlydirection, by a very circuitous route. He arrived in Luceria, withmuch booty and a full money-chest, at harvest time. Near here heencamped in a plain rich in grain and grass for the support of hisarmy.
At Rome the policy of Fabius was severely criticised. His apparentinaction was displeasing to a large party, and he was called Cunctator(the Delayer). At length the assembly voted that his command be sharedby one of his lieutenants, Marcus Minucius. The army was divided intotwo corps; one under Marcus, who intended to attack Hannibal at thefirst opportunity; the other under Fabius, who still adhered to hisformer tactics. Marcus made an attack, but paid dearly for hisrashness, and his whole corps would have been annihilated had notFabius come to his assistance and covered his retreat. Hannibal passedthe winter of 217-216 unmolested.
The season was spent by the Romans in active preparations for thespring campaign. An army of 80,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry wasraised and put under the command of the Consuls, LUCIUS ÆMILIUSPAULLUS and GAIUS TERENTIUS VARRO. It was decided to test Hannibal'sstrength once more in open battle. His army was only half as strong asthe Roman in infantry, but was much superior in cavalry.
In the early summer of 216 the Consuls concentrated their forces atCANNAE, a hamlet near the mouth of the Aufidus. Early one morning inJune the Romans massed their troops on the left bank of the river,with their cavalry on either wing, the right under Paullus, and theleft under Varro. The Proconsul Servilius commanded the centre.
The Carthaginians were drawn up in the form of a crescent, flanked bycavalry. Both armies advanced to the attack at the same time. Theonset was terrible; but though the Romans fought with a courageincreased by the thought that their homes, wives, and children were atstake, they were overwhelmed on all sides. Seventy thousand fell onthe field, among whom were Paullus, Servilius, many officers, andeighty men of senatorial rank. This was the most crushing defeat everexperienced by the Romans. All Southern Italy, except the Latincolonies and the Greek cities on the coast, went over to Hannibal.
CHAPTER XV.
ROME was appalled; but though defeated, she was not subdued. All theLatin allies were summoned for aid in the common peril. Boys and oldmen alike took up arms even the slaves were promised freedom if theywould join the ranks.
Hannibal marched from Cannae into Campania. He induced Capua, thesecond city of Italy, to side with him. But his expectations thatother cities would follow her example were not fulfilled. He went intowinter quarters here (215-214). The Capuans, notorious for theirluxurious and effeminate habits, are said to have injured hissoldiers. But Hannibal's superiority as a general is unquestionable,and his want of success after this was due to insufficient aid fromhome, and to the fact that the resources of Rome were greater thanthose of Carthage. The Latin allies of Rome had remained true to theirallegiance, and only one city of importance was under his control. Itwas an easy matter to conquer the enemy in open battle, but to supporthis own army was more difficult, for all Italy had been devastated. Onthe other hand, the Romans were well supplied with food from theirpossessions in Sicily.
Hannibal saw, therefore, that more active measures than those alreadyemployed were necessary. He sent to Carthage an appeal for aid. Heformed an alliance with Philip V. of Macedonia, and earnestly urgedHasdrubal Baroa, his lieutenant in Spain, to come to his assistance.He hoped, with this army from the north, with supplies andreinforcements from Carthage, and with such troops as he might obtainfrom Macedonia, to concentrate a large force at Rome and compel herinto submission.
The Romans, realizing the position of Hannibal, kept what forces theycould spare in Spain, under the two Scipio brothers, Publius andGnaeus. With these they hoped to stop reinforcements from reaching theenemy from that quarter. At the same time their army in NorthernGreece effectually engaged the attention of Philip. Thus two years(214-212) passed without any material change in the situation ofaffairs in Italy.
In 212, while the Carthaginians were in the extreme south of Italy,besieging Tarentum, the Romans made strenuous efforts to recoverCampania, and especially Capua. Hannibal, learning the danger, marchedrapidly north, and failing to break through the lines which enclosedthe city, resolved to advance on Rome itself.
Silently and quickly he marched along the Via Latino throughthe heart of the territory of Rome, to within three miles of the city,and with his vanguard he even rode up to one of the city gates. But noally joined him; no Roman force was recalled to face him; no proposalsof peace reached his camp. Impressed by the unmoved confidence of theenemy, he withdrew as quickly as he came, and retreated to his head-quarters in the South.
Capua fell in 211, and the seat of war, to the great relief of Rome,was removed to Lucania and Bruttium. The punishment inflicted uponCapua was severe. Seventy of her Senators were killed, three hundredof her chief citizens imprisoned, and the whole people sold as slaves.The city and its territory were declared to be Roman territory, andthe place was afterwards repeopled by Roman occupants.
Such was the fate of this famous city. Founded in as early times asRome itself, it became the most flourishing city of Magna Graecia,renowned for its luxury and refinement, and as the home of all thehighest arts and culture.
HIERO II., tyrant of Syracuse, died in 216. During his long reign ofmore than fifty years he had been the stanch friend and ally of Romein her struggles with Carthage. Hieronymus, the grandson and successorof Hiero, thought fit to ally himself with Carthage. The young tyrant,who was arrogant and cruel, was assassinated after reigning a fewmonths.
The Roman Governor of Sicily, MARCELLUS, troubled by the Carthaginianfaction in Syracuse, threatened the city with an attack unless theleaders of this faction were expelled. In return, they endeavored toarouse the citizens of the neighboring city of Leontini against Romeand the Roman party in Syracuse. Marcellus at once attacked andstormed Leontini. The Syracusans then closed their city gates againsthim. A siege of two years (214-212) followed, famous for the variousdevices adopted by the noted mathematician ARCHIMÉDES [Footnote:Archimédes was a great investigator in the science of mathematics. Hediscovered the ratio of a sphere to its circumscribed cylinder. One ofhis famous sayings was, "Give me where to stand, and I will move theworld." He exerted his ingenuity in the invention of powerful machinesfor the defence of Syracuse. Eight of his works on mathematics are inexistence. He was killed at the close of the siege by a Roman soldier,who would have spared his life had he not been too intent on amathematical problem to comply with the summons to surrender. On histombstone, it is said, was engraved a cylinder enclosing a sphere.] todefeat the movements of the Romans. The city was finally betrayed by aSpanish officer, and given up to plunder. The art treasures in whichit was so rich were conveyed by Marcellus to Rome. From this time(212) the city became a part of the province of Sicily and the head-quarters of the Roman Governor.
PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, with his brother, GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIOCALVUS, were winning victories over the Carthaginians under HANNO andHASDRUBAL. The greatest of these was fought in 215 at Ibera, thelocation of which is uncertain. Spain was gradually being gained overto Rome, when the Carthaginians, making desperate efforts, sent largereinforcements there (212). The armies of the Scipios were separated,surprised, and overwhelmed. Both their leaders were slain, and Spainwas lost to Rome.
Unless checked, the Carthaginians would now cross the Alps, enterItaly, and, joining forces with Hannibal, place Rome in great danger.PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, son of one of the slain generals, then buttwenty-four years of age, offered to go to Spain and take command. Hehad previously made himself very popular as Aedile, and wasunanimously elected to the command. On his arrival in Spain in 210, hefound the whole country west of the Ebro under the enemy's control.
Fortunately for the Romans, the three Carthaginian generals, HASDRUBALand MAGO, brothers of Hannibal, and HASDRUBAL, son of Gisco, did notact in harmony. Thus Scipio was enabled, in the following spring(209), to capture Carthago Nova, the head-quarters of the enemy. Agood harbor was gained, and eighteen ships of war, sixty-threetransports, $600,000, and 10,000 captives fell into the hands of theRomans.
Shortly after, Scipio fought Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, atBAECULAE, in the upper valley of the Baetis (Guadalquivir); but thebattle was not decisive, for Hasdrubal was soon seen crossing thePyrenees, with a considerable force, on his way to Italy. He spent thewinter (209-208) in Gaul.
The two Carthaginian generals now in Spain, Mago, and Hasdrubal, theson of Gisco, retired, the latter to Lusitania, the former to theBaleares, to wait for reinforcements from home.
The next year another battle was fought near Baecula, resulting in thetotal defeat of the Carthaginians, who retreated to Gadus, in thesouthwestern part of Spain.
The country being now (206) under Roman influence, Scipio crossed thestraits to Africa, and visited the Numidian princes, SYPHAX andMASINISSA, whom he hoped to stir up against Carthage. On his return,after quelling a mutiny of the soldiers, who were dissatisfied abouttheir pay, he resigned his command, and started for Rome, where heintended to become a candidate for the consulship.
The news of the approach of Hasdrubal caused intense anxiety at Rome.Every nerve was strained to prevent the union of the two brothers. TheConsuls for this year (207) were GAIUS CLAUDIUS NERO, a patrician, andMARCUS LIVIUS, a plebeian. To the former was intrusted the task ofkeeping Hannibal in check in Bruttium, while the duty of interceptingHasdrubal was given to the latter.
The Carthaginian had already reached the neighborhood of the riverMetaurus, a small stream south of the Rubicon. From here he sentmessengers to inform his brother of his approach and proposed line ofmarch. These messengers were captured by Nero, and the contents oftheir despatches learned. He at once pushed north with his forces,joined Livius, met Hasdrubal on the METAURUS early in 207, anddefeated his army with great slaughter. Among the slain was Hasdrubalhimself. Nero returned south without delay, and the first intimationthat Hannibal had of this battle was the sight of his brother's headthrown into the camp by the victorious foe.
The war in Italy was now virtually ended, for, although during fouryears more Hannibal stood at bay in a corner of Bruttium, he waspowerless to prevent the restoration of Roman authority throughoutItaly. Nothing now remained to Carthage outside of Africa, except theground on which Hannibal was making his last stand.
Scipio, on his return from Spain, urged an immediate invasion ofAfrica. He was elected Consul in 205, receiving Sicily as hisprovince, with permission to cross into Africa if it seemed to himwise. He was so popular that voluntary contributions of men, money,and supplies poured in from all sides. The old-fashioned aristocracy,however, did not like him, as his taste for splendid living and Greekculture was particularly offensive to them; and a party in the Senatewould have recalled him, had not the popular enthusiasm in his favorbeen too strong to be resisted.
In 204 he sailed from Lilybaeum, and landed near Utica. He waswelcomed by Masinissa, whose friendship he had gained in his previousvisit to Africa from Spain. Syphax, however, sided with Carthage; butin 203 Scipio twice defeated him and the Carthaginian forces.
Negotiations for peace followed, but the war party in Carthageprevailed. Hannibal was recalled. He returned to fight his last battlewith Rome, October 19, 202, at ZAMA, a short distance west ofCarthage. The issue was decided by the valor of the Roman legions, wholoved their commander and trusted his skill. Hannibal met his firstand only defeat, and Scipio won his title of AFRICÁNUS. The battle wasa hard one. After all the newly enrolled troops of Hannibal had beenkilled or put to flight, his veterans, who had remained by him inItaly, although surrounded on all sides by forces far outnumberingtheir own, fought on, and were killed one by one around their belovedchief. The army was fairly annihilated. Hannibal, with only a handful,managed to escape to Hadrumétum.
The battle of Zama decided the fate of the West. The power of Carthagewas broken, and her supremacy passed to Rome. She was allowed toretain her own territory intact, but all her war-ships, except ten,were given up, and her prisoners restored; an annual tax of about$200,000, for fifty years, was to be paid into the Roman treasury, andshe could carry on no war without the consent of Rome. Masinissa wasrewarded by an increase in territory, and was enrolled among the"allies and friends of the Roman people."
Rome was now safe from any attack. She had become a greatMediterranean power. Spain was divided into two provinces, and thenorth of Africa was under her protection.
Such was the result of the seventeen years' struggle. Scipio waswelcomed home, and surnamed AFRICANUS. He enjoyed a triumph neverbefore equalled. His statue was placed, in triumphal robes and crownedwith laurels, in the Capitol. Many honors were thrust upon him, whichhe had the sense to refuse. He lived quietly for some years, taking nopart in politics.
CHAPTER XVI.
ROME was now in a position to add new nations to her list of subjects.The kingdoms of the East which formerly composed a part of the vastempire of Alexander the Great, and which finally went to swell thelimits of Roman authority, were Egypt, Syria, Macedonia, and Greeceproper.
EGYPT was governed by the Ptolemies, and included at this time thevalley of the Nile, Palestine, Phoenicia, the island of Cyprus, and anumber of towns in Thrace.
SYRIA, extending from the Mediterranean to the Indus, was composed ofvarious nations which enjoyed a semi-independence. Under incompetentrulers, she saw portion after portion of her dominions fall from her.Thus arose Pergamus, Pontus, Cappadocia, and Phrygia.
MACEDONIA was ruled by Philip V., and included also a large portion ofNorthern Greece.
GREECE proper was divided between the ACHAEAN and AETOLIAN LEAGUES,the former including the most of the Peloponnesus, the latter thegreater part of Central Greece.
Ever since the repulse of Pyrrhus, Rome had been slowly drifting intocloser contact with the East. She formed an alliance with Egypt in273. From this country had come in part her supply of corn during theSecond Punic War. In 205, Ptolemy V. became king, and, through fear ofthe Macedonian and Syrian kings, sought the protection of Rome.
The punishment of the Illyrican pirates in 228 brought Rome intocloser relations with Greece. These connections had been sufficient toopen the Eastern ports to her trade, but her struggle with Carthagehad left her no time or strength to interfere actively in Easternpolitics, until she was forced to take action by the alliance ofPhilip V. of Macedonia and Hannibal, and by the former's threatenedinvasion of Italy in 214. A small force was sent into Greece, whichwas soon largely increased by the dissatisfied subjects of Philip.
The only object of Rome in the First Macedonian War (214-205) was toprevent Philip from lending aid to Hannibal; and in this she waspartially successful. None of the Macedonian troops entered Italy, butfour thousand of them were at Zama.
The military operations of this war were of slight importance. MarcusValerius Laevinus was sent to the Adriatic, and pushed the king sohard that he was obliged to burn the fleet in which he intended tosail for Italy. Philip was at this time at war with Aetolia. Laevinusassisted the Aetolians, and the king was too fully occupied at home tothink of operations farther away. But in 205, the Romans, wishing toconcentrate their energies upon the invasion of Africa, made peace.
Some of Philip's soldiers had been captured at Zama. He demanded theirreturn. The answer was, that, if he wished war again, he could haveit.
There were several other reasons which led to the SECOND MACEDONIANWAR (200-197). Philip had agreed with ANTIOCHUS III., king of Syria,to attempt with him the division of Egypt, since it seemed probablethat the young king, Epiphanes (Ptolemy V.), who was only four yearsold, would not be able to make an effectual resistance. The ministersof Egypt sought the protection of Rome. On their journey, the Romanenvoys sent to assume the office of protectorship remonstrated withPhilip.
In Asia Minor Philip had conducted himself with such barbarity thatthe people rose against him; and from a similar cause Greece wasdriven to seek alliances which would protect her against him.
Rome was unwilling to undertake a new war, but the people were inducedto vote for one, on the representation that the only means ofpreventing an invasion of Italy was to carry the war abroad.
This year (200) the Consul, Publius Sulpicius Galba, was sent with aconsiderable force across the Adriatic. His campaign, and that of theConsul Villius during the next year, were productive of no decisiveresults, but in 198 the Consul TITUS QUINCTIUS FLAMINÍNUS, a man ofdifferent calibre, conducted the war with vigor. He defeated Philip onthe Aóus, drove him back to the pass of Tempe, and the next yearutterly defeated him at CYNOSCEPHALAE.
The king had drawn up his forces in two divisions. With the first hebroke through the line of the legions, which, however, closed inaround him with but little loss. The other division was attacked bythe Romans, while it was forming, and thoroughly discomfited. Thevictory of the Romans was decisive.
About the same time the Achaeans captured CORINTH from Philip, and theRhodians defeated his troops in Caria.
Further resistance was impossible. Philip was left in possession ofMacedonia alone; he was deprived of all his dependencies in Greece,Thrace, and Asia Minor, and was forbidden, as Carthage had been, towage war without Rome's consent.
The next year (196), at the Isthmian Games, the "freedom of Greece"was proclaimed to the enthusiastic crowds, and two years laterFlamininus withdrew his troops from the so called "three fetters ofGreece,"--Chalcis, Demetrias, and Corinth,--and, urging the Greeks toshow themselves worthy of the gift of the Roman people, he returnedhome to enjoy a well earned triumph.
The chief result of the second Macedonian war was, therefore, the firmestablishment of a ROMAN PROTECTORATE OVER GREECE AND EGYPT. The wedgehad been entered and the interference of Rome in Eastern affairs wasassured.
CHAPTER XVII.
Antiochus III. of Syria, who had proposed to share Egypt with Philip,had been engaged for some time in a campaign in the East, and did nothear of his ally's danger until too late to aid him. However, heclaimed for himself portions of Asia Minor and Thrace, which Philiphad previously held, and which Rome now declared free and independent.He crossed the Hellespont into Thrace in 196, but did not dare toenter Greece, although earnestly urged to do so by the Aetolians,until after Flamininus had withdrawn all his troops (192).
Antiochus was no general. Himself irresolute and fond of pleasure, thepower behind his throne was HANNIBAL. This great soldier, after hisdefeat at Zama, did not relinquish the aim of his life. He became thechief magistrate of his native city, and in a short time cleared themoral atmosphere, which was charged with corruption and depravity.Under him Carthage might have risen again. But his intrigues withAntiochus, with whom he wished to make an alliance, gave Rome anopportunity to interfere. His surrender was demanded. He fled, and,after wandering from coast to coast, became the trusted adviser of theSyrian king.
Had Antiochus been energetic after his arrival in Greece, he couldhave accomplished something before the Roman troops came. But hedisregarded the warnings of Hannibal, and spent valuable time in minormatters. The Romans arrived in 191, and under Glabrio at Thermopylaedrove back the intruder, who hastily retired to Asia Minor. TheAetolians were punished for their infidelity.
In 190, LUCIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO was elected Consul, and put in commandof the army in the East, with the understanding that he should beaccompanied by his brother Africanus, and have the benefit of hismilitary skill and experience. Under his command, the Romans crossedthe Hellespont and sought Antiochus in his own kingdom.
Hannibal could do nothing with the poorly disciplined troops of theking. They were met by the invading forces at MAGNESIA, in Lydia, in190, and 80,000 Asiatics were put to rout by 30,000 Romans, 50,000being slain. The loss of the victors was slight.
On that day the fate of Asia was sealed. Antiochus relinquished allpretensions to any territory west of the river Halys and the Taurusmountains. His chariots, elephants, fleet, and treasures were allsurrendered.
Scipio returned home to enjoy a triumph, and added ASIATICUS to hisname, as his brother had taken that of Africanus in commemoration ofhis victory.
Gneius Manlius Vulso succeeded Scipio in the East. He made a campaignagainst the Gauls, who had settled in Galatia about a century before,and had become wealthy by means of constant plunderings. The excusefor the campaign was, that they had served in the Syrian army; thereason was, their wealth, and the ambition of the Consul for glory.
The Galatians were easily overcome, their wealth seized, and theythemselves became assimilated to their neighbors. This war isnoticeable chiefly for the reason that Manlius undertook it withoutthe authority of the Senate, the first instance of its kind, and aprecedent which was too frequently followed in later times. On hisreturn to Rome he was allowed a triumph, which stamped his act aslegal.
These wars in the East brought to Rome immense riches, which laid thefoundation of its Oriental extravagance and luxury, and finallyundermined the strength of the state. From Greece were introducedlearning and refinement, from Asia immorality and effeminacy. Thevigor and tone of Roman society are nowhere more forcibly shown thanin the length of time it took for its subjugation by these ruinousexotics.
Meanwhile, at Rome the political enemies of the Scipios were in theascendency. Asiaticus was accused of misappropriating funds obtainedduring his campaign in the East. As he was about to produce hisaccount-books before the Senate, his brother, Africanus, seized them,tore them to pieces, and threw the remnants on the floor. Asiaticus,however, was sentenced to pay a fine. When it was afterwards intimatedthat his brother too was implicated, he proudly reminded his enemiesthat their insinuations were ill-timed, for it was the anniversary ofZama. This remark changed the tide of feeling, and no more chargeswere made.
Two years later (183), Africanus died in voluntary exile at Liternum,on the coast of Campania. He had lived little more than fifty years.His wife, Aemilia, was the daughter of Paullus, who fell at Cannae,and the sister of him who afterwards conquered Perseus of Macedonia.His daughter, CORNELIA, afterwards became the mother of the famousGRACCHI.
Next to Caesar, Scipio was Rome's greatest general. During thecampaign in the East, he met Hannibal at the court of Antiochus. Inthe conversation Hannibal is reported to have said that he consideredAlexander the greatest general, Pyrrhus next, and, had he himselfconquered Scipio, he would have placed himself before either.
Scipio lived to see Rome grow from an Italian power to be practicallythe mistress of the world. He was of marked intellectual culture, andas conversant with Greek as with his mother tongue. He possessed acharm which made him popular at a time when the culture and arts ofGreece were not so courted at Rome as in later days.
Hannibal, after the defeat of Antiochus, was demanded by the Romans,but, escaping, took refuge in Crete, and subsequently with Prusias,King of Bithynia. His surrender was demanded, and troops were sent toarrest him. Seeing no way of escape, he opened the bead on his ringand swallowed the poison which it contained (183).
Thus died one of the greatest of commanders, without attaining the aimof his life. He had lived but fifty-four years, yet his life was somarked that people have ever since looked with wonder upon thetremendous magnitude of what he undertook, and came so nearaccomplishing.
This same year is also memorable for the death of "the last of theGreeks," PHILOPOEMEN. [Footnote: See Ancient Greece, page 145.]
CHAPTER XVIII.
Although Philip had aided the Romans in their campaign againstAntiochus, he did not receive from them the expected reward inadditions to his territory. Immediate resistance would be futile; buthe labored patiently and quietly to increase his resources, and tostir up among the neighboring Greeks hostile feeling towards Rome. Heplaced his army on the best footing possible, and soon began toenlarge his boundaries. Complaints were made to Rome, and the king wascompelled to give up his conquests, and confine himself to the limitsof Macedonia. In 179 Philip died, and was succeeded by his sonPERSEUS.
The new king was as able as his father, and more impatient ofsubjection. He made friends with the surrounding princes, formed amarriage connection with Antiochus IV. of Syria, and strove to arouseamong the Greeks memories of their former greatness.
The Senate, hearing of his numerous intrigues, determined to checkhim. War was declared in 171; but the forces sent by Rome were atfirst led by incompetent men, and nothing was accomplished untilLICIUS AEMILIUS PAULLUS was made Consul, and took charge of the war in168.
Paullus (229-160) was the son of the Consul of the same name who waskilled at Cannae. His integrity was first shown when, as CURULEAEDILE, [Footnote: See page 225] in 192, he prosecuted persons who hadmade an illegal use of the public pastures. He was sent to UlteriorSpain in 191 as governor, where, after some reverses, he put down allinsurrections. He was Consul in 182, and did good work in conquering atribe of marauders in Liguria. For this he was allowed a triumph.
He was elected Consul a second time in 168, and sent against Perseus.The war was brought to a speedy end by the battle of PYDNA, on theThermáic Gulf, June 22. The king fled to Samothráce with his treasuresand family. He was shortly afterwards captured, but was treated withkindness by the Consul.
Paullus now travelled through Greece. Later, assisted bycommissioners, he arranged the affairs of Macedonia. The country wasdivided into four small republics, independent of each other, butprohibited from intermarriage and commerce with one another.
On his return to Rome in 167, he enjoyed a triumph, which was gracedby Perseus and his three children. He was Censor in 164, and died fouryears later.
Paullus had two sons by his first wife. The elder of these was adoptedby Fabius Maximus Cunctátor, the younger by the son of Africánus theelder, his brother-in-law. He was of the "blue" blood of Rome, ofperfect honesty, and very popular, a good general, but somewhatsuperstitious. A patron of learning and the fine arts, he gave hissons the best training under Greek masters. A strong proof of hispopularity is the fact that his body was carried to its last restingplace by volunteers from the various peoples he had conquered.
Perseus spent his last days in confinement near Rome, enduring, it isalleged, base and cruel treatment. He was the last king of Macedonia.
After the victory at Pydna, the sympathy shown in Greece for theconquered monarch made the Romans more watchful of her intereststhere. All suspected to be enemies were removed as hostages to Italy,and among these was the historian POLYBIUS. He lived in Rome for morethan twenty years, and became a great friend of the younger Africánus,whom he accompanied to the siege of Carthage.
Like Macedonia, Greece was separated into parts, independent of eachother, with no rights of connubium or commercium. Utterdemoralization soon ensued, which proved a sure preventive to allalliances liable to shake the authority of Rome.
Trouble again arose in Macedonia twenty years after Pydna, culminatingin what is sometimes called the FOURTH MACEDONIAN WAR (149-146). Underthe leadership of ANDRISCUS, who claimed to be a son of Perseus, thepeople rebelled against the protection of Rome. They were twicedefeated in 148 by the praetor QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS, who gainedthe agnomen of MACEDONICUS. The country was made a Roman province,with a Roman magistrate at its head.
At this time the Achaeans were quarrelling with Sparta. Metelluswarned them to desist, and when the Achaeans advanced against him, heeasily defeated them near SCARPHEIA.
Metellus was a moderate reformer and a model man. He belonged to anillustrious plebeian gens, the Caecilian. Before his death in115 three of his sons had been consuls, one censor, and the fourth wasa candidate for the consulship.
Metellus was succeeded in Greece by LUCIUS MUMMIUS, a cruel and harshleader. The remnant of the Achaean army had taken refuge in CORINTH.The Senate directed Mummius to attack the city. Its capture in 146 wasmarked by special cruelties. The city was burned to the ground;beautiful pictures and costly statuary were ruthlessly destroyed. Goldin abundance was carried to Rome. The last vestige of Greek libertyvanished. The country became a Roman province under the name ofACHAIA.
Corinth, the "eye of all Greece," remained in ruins for a century,when it was rebuilt in 46 by Julius Caesar, who planted on its site acolony of veterans and freedmen.
CHAPTER XIX.
Fifty years had passed since Zama. It was a period of great commercialprosperity for Carthage, but her government was weakened by thequarrels of conflicting factions.
MASINISSA, King of Numidia, an ally of the Romans, was a continualsource of annoyance to Carthage. He made inroads upon her territory,and, as she was bound by her treaty not to war upon any allies ofRome, her only recourse was to complain to the Senate. In 157 anembassy was sent to inquire into the troubles. MARCUS PORCIUS CATO,the chief of the embassy, was especially alarmed at the prosperity ofthe city, and from that time never ceased to urge its destruction. Theembassy did not reach any decision, but allowed matters to go on asthey might. Finally, when some sympathizers with Masinissa werebanished from the city, he attacked and defeated the Carthaginians,compelled their army to pass under the yoke, and afterwardstreacherously destroyed it (150). Carthage was compelled to give upsome of her territory, and pay $5,000,000 indemnity.
After this victory, matters came to a crisis. The city must bedisciplined for warring with an ally of Rome. Cato never failed toclose any speech he might make in the Senate with the same cruelwords, Delenda est Carthago, "Carthage must be destroyed." Thepeople of Carthage were called to account. Desponding and broken-hearted, they sent ambassadors to Rome. The answer given them wasobscure. They were requested to make reparation to Rome, and at thesame time they were assured that nothing should be undertaken againstCarthage herself. But in 149 the Consuls crossed with a large armyinto Sicily, where the troops were organized, and Carthaginianambassadors were expected.
When they appeared, the Consuls declared that the Senate did not wishto encroach upon the freedom of the people, but only desired somesecurity; for this purpose it demanded that, within thirty days, threehundred children of the noblest families should be delivered intotheir hands as hostages. This demand was met. The Romans then coollycrossed over to Africa, and informed the Carthaginians that they wereready to treat with them on any question not previously settled.
When the ambassadors again appeared before the Consuls, they were toldthat Carthage must deliver over all her arms and artillery; for, theysaid, as Rome was able to protect her, there was no need of Carthagepossessing arms. Hard as was this command, it was obeyed. They werethen told that Carthage had indeed shown her good will, but that Romehad no control over the city so long as it was fortified. Thepreservation of peace, therefore, required that the people should quitthe city, give up their navy, and build a new town without walls at adistance of ten miles from the sea. The indignation and fury whichthis demand excited were intense. The gates were instantly closed, andall the Romans and Italians who happened to be within the city weremassacred.
The Romans, who expected to find a defenceless population, imaginedthat the storming of the place would be an easy matter. But despairhad suggested to the Carthaginians means of defence in everydirection. All assaults were repelled. Everybody was engaged day andnight in the manufacture of arms. Nothing can be more heartrendingthan this last struggle of despair. Every man and every woman laboredto the uttermost for the defence of the city with a furiousenthusiasm.
Two years after the siege began, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO AFRICÁNUS,the Younger, was elected Consul while but thirty-seven (under thelegal age), for the express purpose of giving him charge of the siege.After two years of desperate fighting and splendid heroism on the partof the defenders, the famished garrison could hold out no longer.
Carthage fell in 146, and the ruins of the city burned for seventeendays. The destruction was complete. A part of her territory was givento Numidia. The rest was made a Roman province, and called AFRICA.
The year 149 saw the death of two men who had been Carthage's mostbitter enemies, but who were not allowed to see her downfall,--MASINISSA and CATO, the one aged ninety, the other eighty-five.
Masinissa's (239-149) hostility dates from the time he failed to getthe promised hand of Hasdrubal's daughter, Sophonisba, who was givento his rival, Syphax. After the battle of Zama, most of thepossessions of Syphax fell to Masinissa, and among them this sameSophonisba, whom he married. Scipio, however, fearing her influenceover him, demanded her as a Roman captive, whereupon she took poison.Masinissa was a courageous prince, but a convenient tool for theRomans.
CATO THE ELDER (Major), (234-149,) whose long public career wasa constant struggle with the enemies of the state abroad, and with thefashions of his countrymen at home, was a type of the old Romancharacter, with a stern sense of duty that forbade his neglecting theinterests of state, farm, or household. In 184, in his capacity asCensor, he acted with extreme rigor. He zealously asserted old-fashioned principles, and opposed the growing tendency to luxury. Allinnovations were in his eyes little less than crimes. He was theauthor of several works, one of which, a treatise on agriculture, hasbeen preserved.
Cicero's "Cato Major" represents him in his eighty-fourth yeardiscoursing about old age with Africánus the younger, and Laelius, afriend of the latter.
CHAPTER XX.
Africanus the elder left Spain in 206. After a provincial governmentof nine years (206-197), the country was divided into two provinces,separated by the IBÉRUS (Ebro), and each province was assigned to apraetor. It was some time, however, before Spain was really broughtinto a state of complete peace and order. The mountains and forestswere a formidable obstacle to the Roman legions, and favored guerillawarfare, which makes conquest slow and laborious.
The most warlike of the Spanish tribes was the CELTIBÉRI, who occupiedthe interior of the peninsula. They were always uncertain andintractable, continually breaking out into revolt. In 195, Cato theelder put down a rebellion led by them. He established more firmly theRoman power east of the Ibérus. He disarmed the inhabitants of thispart of Spain, and compelled all from the Pyrenees to the Guadalquivirto pull down their fortifications.
Still the smouldering fires of rebellion were not extinguished, for,sixteen years later (179), we find TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, thefather of the famous Gracchi, as Governor of Spain, fighting thetroublesome Celtibéri. He captured over one hundred of their towns,but tempered his victories with moderate measures, showing himselfgreater in peace than in war. He granted to the poorer classes landson favorable conditions, and did much to produce contentment among thenatives. But farther west, in the valleys of the Douro and Tagus, andin Lusitania (Portugal), there seems to have been constant warfare.
In 154, MUMMIUS, the same who eight years later sacked Corinth, wasGovernor of Farther Spain. His defeat by the Lusitanians encouragedthe Celtibéri to revolt again, and there followed another defeat, witha massacre of many Roman citizens. Two years later (152), CLAUDIUSMARCELLUS avenged these losses, founded Corduba, and governed thecountry humanely. His successors, LUCIUS LUCULLUS and SERVIUS GALBA,were so cruel and grasping as to drive the Lusitanians into anotheropen rebellion, headed by VIRIÁTHUS, a bold and daring bandit. Duringseven years (147-140) he defeated again and again the armies sentagainst him. The Celtibéri joined his standards, and Spain seemedlikely to slip from the Romans. The only check to these successes wasduring the command of METELLUS MACEDONICUS (143); when he wasrecalled, matters returned to their former condition.
In 140, the Consul Mancínus was obliged to capitulate, and, to savehimself and his army, made a treaty which the Senate refused tosanction.
Viriáthus was finally (139) assassinated by persons hired by theConsul Caepio; his people were then subdued, and the government wasably conducted (138) by DECIMUS JUNIUS BRUTUS.
The Celtibéri, however, were still in arms. The strong city ofNUMANTIA, the capital of one of their tribes, witnessed more than onedefeat of a Roman Consul before its walls (141-140). Finally Rome sentout her best general, Africanus the younger.
After devoting several months to the disciplining of his troops, hebegan (134) a regular siege of the place. It was defended with theutmost bravery and tenacity, until, forced by the last extreme offamine, it surrendered (133). The inhabitants were sold as slaves, andthe town was levelled to the ground. The victor was honored with thetitle of NUMANTÍNUS.
The fall of Numantia gave Rome a hold upon the interior of Spain,which was never lost. The country now, with the exception of itsnorthern coast, was nominally Roman territory. Several towns wereestablished with Latin municipal rights (municipia), and, onthe whole, order was maintained. Along the coast of the Mediterraneanthere sprang up many thriving and populous towns, which became centresof civilization to the neighboring districts, and were treated by Romerather as allies than as subjects. Some of them were allowed to cointhe silver money of Rome. The civilizing process, due to Romaninfluence, went on rapidly in these parts, while the interior remainedin barbarism.
In 105 the peninsula was overrun by the Cimbri, a barbarous race fromthe north. The country was ravaged, but finally saved by the braveCeltibéri, who forced the invaders back into Gaul.
While the Numantine war was still in progress, a war with the slavesbroke out in Sicily, where they had been treated with specialbarbarity.
For a long time slave labor had been taking the place of that offreemen. The supply was rendered enormous by constant wars, and by theregular slave trade carried on with the shores of the Black Sea andGreece. The owners of the slaves became an idle aristocracy.
The immediate cause of the outbreak in Sicily was the cruelty of awealthy slave-owner, Damophilus. The leader of the slaves was EUNUS,who pretended to be a Syrian prophet. A number of defeats weresuffered by the Roman armies, until, finally, PUBLIUS RUTILIUScaptured the strongholds of the slaves, TAUROMENIUM and ENNA, and thusclosed the war. For his success he was allowed an ovation.
CHAPTER XXI.
We have seen how the long struggle between the patricians andplebeians terminated in a nominal victory for the latter. From about275, the outward form of the old constitution had undergone littlechange. It was nominally that of a "moderate democracy." The Senateand offices of state were, in law, open to all alike. In practice,however, the constitution became an oligarchy. The Senate, not theComitias, ruled Rome. Moreover, the Senate was controlled by a classwho claimed all the privileges of a nobility. The Comitias were rarelycalled upon to decide a question. Most matters were settled by aDECREE OF THE SENATE (Senatus Consultum). To be sure theComitia declared for war or peace, but the Senate conducted the warand settled the conditions of peace. It also usually assigned thecommands, organized the provinces, and managed the finances.
The causes for this ascendency of the Senate are not hard to find. Itwas a body made up of men capable of conducting affairs. It could beconvened at any time, whereas the voters of the Comitias werescattered over all Italy, and, if assembled, would not be competent todecide questions demanding knowledge of military matters and foreignpolicy.
The Senate and the Roman nobility were in the main the same. Allpatricians were nobles, but all nobles were not patricians. Thepatricians were the descendants of the original founders of the city.The nobles were the descendants of any one who had filled one of thefollowing six curule offices, viz. Dictator, Magister Equitum, Consul,Interrex, Praetor, or Curule Aedile. These nobles possessed the rightto place in their hall, or carry in funeral processions, a wax mask ofthis ancestor, and also of any other member of the family who had helda curule office.
A plebeian who first held this office was called a novus homo,or "new man."
The Senate, thus made up of patricians and nobles, had at this timethe monopoly of power. Legally, however, it had no positive authority.The right of the people to govern was still valid, and there was onlywanting a magistrate with the courage to remind them of their legalrights, and urge the exercise of them.
Such a magistrate was found in TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS. With himwas ushered in the contest which lasted for more than a century, andbrought to the surface some of the proudest names of Roman history. Onone side or the other we find them,--MARIUS and SULLA, CAESAR andPOMPEY, AUGUSTUS and ANTONY--arraying Rome against herself, until theglories of the Republic were swallowed up in the misrule and dishonorof the Empire.
Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus the elder (see Chapter XX.) belonged tothe nobility, but not to the aristocracy. He married CORNELIA, thedaughter of Africánus the elder. They had twelve children, of whom allbut three died young. Two sons and a daughter lived to maturity. Thedaughter, SEMPRONIA, married Africánus the younger. The sons, TIBERIUSand GAIUS, grew up under the care of their noble and gifted mother,who was left a widow when they were mere boys.
Tiberius (164-133) entered the army, and served under his brother-in-law during the third Punic war. Ten years later (136) he was Quaestorin Spain, where he won the affections of the people by adhering to themild policy which his father had previously followed. His popularmeasures here displeased his brother-in-law, and he ceased to be afavorite with him. On his return home he passed through Tuscany wherehe was astonished to see large tracts of the ager publicus (seeChapter VII.) cultivated by slave gangs, while the free poor citizensof the Republic were wandering in towns without employment, anddeprived of the land which, according to law (see the LicinianRogations), should have been divided among them, and not held in largequantities by the rich land-owners.
Tiberius determined to rectify this wrong. In 133 he offered himselfas candidate for the tribuneship, and was elected. He then beganboldly the battle for the commons. He proposed to revise the AgrarianLaw, now a dead letter, which forbade the holding of more than 320acres of the ager publicus by one individual. Occupants who hadfenced this land and improved it were to be compensated therefor.
The wealthy classes and the Senate at once took sides againstTiberius, and the struggle began. One of the other Tribunes, OCTAVIUSCAECÍNA, who was himself a large land-owner, taking advantage of hisauthority as Tribune, interposed his veto to prevent a vote upon thequestion.
Gracchus, full of enthusiasm over the justice of his cause, obtained,contrary to all precedent, the removal of his colleague from office,and passed his Agrarian Law. Three commissioners were appointed,himself, his brother, and his father-in-law, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, to carryit into effect.
It was contrary to the law that a person should hold the office ofTribune for two successive years. But Gracchus, in his desire to carryout his plans, determined to violate this rule, and offered himself ascandidate for the next year. The election day came, and when it becameevident that he would be re-elected, the aristocrats, who had turnedout in full force on the Campus Martius with their retinues of armedslaves and clients, raised a riot, and, killing Gracchus with threehundred of his followers, threw their bodies into the Tiber (133).Thus was shed the first blood of the civil struggle. The mob was ledby SCIPIO NASÍCA, the uncle of Tiberius. Africánus, when he heard ofthe murder of his brother-in-law, exclaimed, "Justly slain."
The agrarian law, however, which had passed, was too evidently just tobe openly ignored. The remaining two commissioners continued theirwork, until, within two years, 40,000 families were settled on tractsof the public land which the patricians were compelled to vacate. Butthe commissioners became unpopular, for those who received lands werenot always satisfied, and those who were obliged to leave them wereenraged. The commissioners were suspended, and the law repealed.
The mantle of Tiberius fell on GAIUS GRACCHUS. For a time after hisbrother's death he retired from politics, and served in the army inAfrica and Sardinia, where he was Quaestor. His valor, wisdom, andjustice made him justly popular, but caused him to be regarded withsuspicion at Rome. In 123 he was elected Tribune, and twice re-elected. He revived his brother's agrarian law, and became at once theavowed enemy of the Senate. As a means of increasing his popularity,he endeavored to admit all the Italians to the privileges of Romancitizenship, and to limit the price of bread.
Gains gained the favor of the Equites (Knights), the commercialclass, by carrying through the assembly a law by which all judicialfunctions were taken from the Senate and intrusted to the Knights.Heretofore all civil and criminal cases of importance had been triedbefore a jury chosen from the Senate. These juries were often venaland corrupt, and it was a notorious fact that their verdicts could bebought.
The transferring of the juries to the Equites made Gaius for a timevery powerful. He caused another law to be passed, to the effect thatno Roman citizen should be put to death without legal trial and anappeal to the assembly of the people.
But the plan of Gaius to extend the franchise to all the Italiansruined his popularity. The Roman citizens had no desire to share theirrights with the Etruscans and Samnites. Riots again broke out, as tenyears before. The aristocracy again armed itself. Gaius with 3,000 ofhis friends was murdered in 121, and the Senate was once more masterof the situation.
However, the results obtained by the Gracchi still remained. Fortythousand peasants had been settled on public land. The jury law was inforce. No Roman citizen could be put to death without trial, unlessthe state was held to be in danger.
Nearly all Roman writers unite in attacking the reputation of theGracchi; but viewed in the light of to-day their characters werenoble, and their virtues too conspicuous to be obscured.
A few years previous to this, the younger Africánus died (129). Hisremark about the death of Tiberius Gracchus gave dire offence to thepopular party, and a few days later he was found dead in his bed,probably "a victim of political assassination."
Africánus was a man of refinement and culture, a warm friend ofscholars, a patron of the Greek historian POLYBIUS, and of the poetsLUCILIUS and TERENCE. He was opposed to the tendency of his agetowards luxury and extravagance. He was an orator, as well as ageneral. The one blot on his career is the terrible destruction ofCarthage, which he possibly might have averted had he shown firmopposition to it.
SCIPIO NASÍCA, who led the mob against Tiberius, was compelled, thoughPontifex Maximus, to leave the city, and died an exile in Asia.
CHAPTER XXII.
Pergamum was an ancient city of Mysia on the Caícus, fifteen milesfrom the sea. It first became important after the death of Alexander.Its first king, Attalus I. (241-197), added a large territory to thecity. He was an ally of the Romans, and his successors remained theirfirm friends. The city became one of the most prosperous and famous inAsia Minor, noted for its architectural monuments, its fine library,and its schools. Attalus III., at his death in 133, bequeathed to Romehis kingdom, which included Lydia, Pisidia, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia.It was made a province under the name of ASIA.
After the destruction of Carthage, the most important kingdom inAfrica was NUMIDIA. It contained a number of flourishing towns, whichwere centres of a considerable commerce. Masinissa left this kingdomto his son Micipsa. The latter had two sons and a nephew, JUGURTHA.The nephew was a brilliant young man, who had served under Scipio inthe Numantine war, and returned to Africa covered with honors. He wasnamed joint heir with his cousins to the kingdom of Numidia. Micipsadying soon after, Jugurtha murdered one of his cousins, Hiempsal,claimed the whole kingdom, and attacked his other cousin, Adherbal,who appealed to Rome. Commissioners were sent to investigate. Theywere bought off by Jugurtha, and returned home without accomplishinganything. Adherbal was afterwards captured, savagely tortured, andfinally killed.
The Senate, compelled by the popular indignation to make aninvestigation, moved so slowly that some of its members were accusedof accepting bribes. War was declared at last, but the campaignlanguished, and peace was soon made on such easy terms for the princethat it was evident his money had again been freely used. Thescandalous transaction was denounced at Rome by the Tribune MEMMIUS.Jugurtha then repaired to the city in person, and bought up all theauthorities except Memmius, whom he found incorruptible. He hadanother cousin in the city, whom he caused to be murdered. After thisthe Senate ordered him to leave, and as he departed, it is said heexclaimed, "Venal city, destined soon to perish, if a purchaser befound!"
War was now begun in earnest (110), but resulted in a crushing defeatof the Romans, whose army was sent under the yoke. Humiliated by thedefeat, the Senate in the following year sent QUINTUS CAECILIUSMETELLUS, nephew of Metellus Macedonicus, to take charge of the war.He was a man of integrity, with some experience as an officer, and arigid aristocrat. Realizing the danger of failure, he took with him ashis lieutenant the ablest soldier that he could find, GAIUS MARIUS.
Marius, born at Arpínum in 157, was the son of a farmer, and washimself bred to the plough. He joined the army at an early age, andsoon attracted notice for his punctual performance of all duties, andhis strictness in discipline. He was present at the siege of Numantia,and his courage caused Scipio to predict for him a brilliant career.He soon rose to be Military Tribune. In 119 he was chosen Tribune ofthe People, and two years later Praetor. The fact that he wasrespected and valued in high circles is shown by his subsequentmarriage into the family of the Caesars. By this marriage with Julia,the aunt of Julius Caesar, he became a person of social distinction.
The campaign was moderately successful. Jugurtha was defeated near theriver Muthul, and made to retire into the desert, where hisstronghold, Thala, was captured. He sued for peace, but, asunconditional surrender was demanded, he still held out. The popularparty at Rome, irritated that such a petty prince should give so muchtrouble, demanded that Marius should be made Consul and have charge ofthe war. When the lieutenant asked Metellus for leave of absence toenable him to be present at the elections, as was necessary accordingto the law, his general ridiculed the idea, and told him to waitanother twenty years. He went, however, and was elected in 107, beingthe first plebeian chosen to that office for more than a century.
Metellus was recalled, enjoyed a triumph, and received the agnomen ofNUMIDICUS.
Marius was every inch a soldier. He saw that the Roman legions must bereorganized and better disciplined. He enlisted men who had no otheroccupation, that they might become professional soldiers. Some men ofrank who had a taste for war also went with him. Among these was ayoung patrician, CORNELIUS SULLA. With this army Marius soon wrestedfrom Jugurtha all his strongholds. In less than two years the war wasover. By his ally, Bocchus, King of Mauritania, Jugurtha was betrayed(106) into the hands of Sulla, who was acting as the Quaestor ofMarius.
The western portion of Numidia was given to Bocchus as the reward ofhis treachery, while the remainder continued to be governed by nativeprinces, until the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. In 104 Mariusreturned home, and entered Rome in triumph. Jugurtha was thrown into adungeon, and there starved to death.
CHAPTER XXIII.
The war with Jugurtha ended none too soon, for Marius was needed in astruggle requiring all his talents.
The CIMBRI and TEUTONES, barbarous nations from Northern Europe, werethreatening the frontiers of Italy. Already the Roman armies had metwith five successive defeats at their hands on the banks of the Rhone.Eighty thousand Romans and forty thousand camp followers are said tohave fallen in these battles. Had the barbarians at this moment chosento enter Italy, the destruction of Rome would have been a certainresult. Fortunately, they turned to the Pyrenees, and, sweeping overthe mountains, overran for a season the province of Spain.
Marius, appointed Consul a second time, devoted his energies toforming and training the army. He selected the plains on the banks ofthe Rhone in Southern Gaul as best adapted for his purpose. Here hedrilled his troops, accustoming them to the greatest possibleexertions. Many perished under the strain, but the survivors becamehardened soldiers. Corps of engineers were attached to each legion,and the soldiers were taught the use of tools, as well as of arms. Atlength, in his fourth consulship (102), he felt prepared to meet theenemy.
The barbarians, on their return from Spain, separated their forces,the Cimbri marching around the northern foot of the Alps towardsNoricum, with the intention of invading Italy from that quarter, whilethe Teutones remained in Gaul.
As the latter advanced, Marius took up his position in a fortifiedcamp near AQUAE SEXTIAE (Aix). He allowed the enemy to march past him,and then followed cautiously, waiting for a favorable opportunity tofall upon them. In the battle that followed, the barbarians were nomatch for the drilled legionaries, who were irresistible. The contestlasted two days, and the vast host of the Teutones was cut to pieces(20 July, 102). At the close of this battle word was brought to Mariusthat he had been elected Consul for the fifth time.
Meanwhile, the Cimbri had crossed the Alps and were ravaging thefertile fields of Lombardy, meeting with but slight opposition fromCatulus, the other Consul.
The next year Marius came to his rescue. Near VERCELLAE the Cimbri metthe same fate as their brethren, and Italy was saved (101).
No sooner was the danger from the invasion over than politicalquarrels broke out at Rome with great fury. Marius was elected Consulfor the sixth time. The popular heroes of the hour were twodemagogues, the Tribune SATURNÍNUS and the Praetor GLAUCIA. Theycarried corn laws and land laws,[Footnote: These were the APPULEIANLAWS (100):--I. Any Roman citizen could buy corn of the state at anominal price. II. The land in Cisalpine Gaul, which the Cimbrians hadoccupied, should be divided among the Italian and Roman citizens.
During this troublesome time, Marius showed that he was no politician.He lacked judgment and firmness, and by endeavoring to please allparties he pleased none.
On the popular side there were two parties, the moderate one, led byMEMMIUS, who had exposed the Senate in its dealings with Jugurtha, andthe radical one, led by Saturnínus and Glaucia. Memmius and Glauciaboth ran for the consulship, and as the former seemed likely to besuccessful, he was murdered. A reaction then set in, and Saturnínusand Glaucia were declared public enemies. They took refuge in theSenate-House, the roof of which was torn off, and the wretches werestoned to death.
The fall of Saturnínus and Glaucia was followed in 99 by the recall ofMetellus from banishment. He died shortly afterwards, and it wassuspected that he was a victim of treachery.
Marius having now become generally unpopular on account of hisvacillating course in the recent troubles, went into voluntary exile,travelling through Asia Minor, and visiting the court of Mithradátes,King of Pontus.
For the next eight years (99-91) Rome enjoyed a season of comparativequiet.
CHAPTER XXIV.
At this time there was a bitter rivalry between the Senate and theequestrian order, or commercial class. From the former were chosen thegovernors of the provinces, from the latter came the tax-gatherers(publicani) and the money-brokers (negotiatores). It willhelp us to understand better the condition of affairs, if we study thecomposition of the Senate and the Equites.
The Senators, three hundred in number (later their number wasincreased to six hundred), held their office for life. When vacanciesoccurred from death, or occasionally from removal, they were filled bythe Censor, [Footnote: See the duties of Censor] who appointed aperson that had held one of the following offices: Dictator, Consul,Praetor, Curule Aedile, or, after the time of Sulla, Quaestor. Allpersons who had held these offices, or that of Tribune, were allowedto join in debate in the Senate, but not to vote. No Senator couldengage in business. Hence he must be wealthy.
We saw in Chapter IV. that Roman citizens were divided into sixclasses according to their property, and that these classes weresubdivided into one hundred and ninety-three other classes calledcenturies. About 225, the number was increased to three hundred andseventy-three. Eighteen of the centuries of the first class werecalled EQUITES, and must have property worth twenty thousand dollarsor more. This name was given to them because at first they served inthe army as horsemen, though in later times the cavalry was composedonly of allied troops. The Equites were originally from thearistocracy alone, but, as the plebeians increased in wealth, many ofthem became rich enough to be included in this class.
There was no hostility between the Senate and the Equites until, in123, Gaius Gracchus passed the Lex Judicaria, which prescribedthat the jurors (judices) should be chosen from the Equites,and not the Senate. From this time dates the struggle between the twoclasses, and the breach widened every year. On the one side were thenobles, represented by the Senate; on the other side, the equestrianorder. Since the jurors were chosen from the latter, it had control ofthe courts, and often made an unscrupulous use of its power,especially in those courts which were established to try governors forextortion in the management of provinces (quaestiones rerumrepetundarum). From the Equites, too, were taken the tax-gatherersof the provinces. They pillaged and robbed the people at will, and, ifa governor had the courage to interfere with them, a threat ofprosecution was held over his head. The average governor preferred toconnive at their exactions; the bolder ones paid with fines or exilesfor their courage. Another trouble was threatening the commonwealth.The Italian allies of Rome did not possess the franchise belonging toa Roman citizen. For nearly two centuries they had shared dangers andvictories with the Romans; they now eagerly demanded all theirprivileges.
In 91, MARCUS LIVIUS DRUSUS, the Tribune, took up the task of reform.He was noble, wealthy, and popular, and he hoped to settle thequestion peacefully and equitably. But his attempt to reform thecourts displeased the Equites, his agrarian and corn laws made himmany enemies, and his attempt to admit the Italians to the rights ofRoman citizenship aroused great opposition.
His laws were passed, but the Senate pronounced them null and void. Hewas denounced in that body as a traitor, and was struck down by anassassin in the same year.
The death of Drusus drove the Italians to despair. Eight nationsentered into a close alliance, chose CORFINIUM, in the PelignianApennines, as their capital, and formed a Federal Republic, to whichthey gave the name ITALIA. All Italians were to be citizens ofCorfinium, and here was to be the place of assembly and the Senate-House.
Rome, in the face of this danger, acted promptly and with resolution.The Consuls, Lucius Julius Caesar and Publius Rutilius Lupus, bothtook the field; with each were five lieutenants, among whom wereMarius and Sulla.
This war (90-88), called the SOCIAL WAR, i.e. the war with the allies(Socii), was at first disastrous to Rome. The allies overranCampania, defeated the Romans several times, and entered intonegotiations with the Northern Italians, whose fidelity began towaver.
It is not strange, therefore, that opinions at Rome began to be turnedin the direction of a more liberal policy. It was decided to makeconcessions. Towards the close of the year 90, the Consul Caesarcarried the JULIAN LAW, by which the Roman franchise was extended toall who had not yet revolted. The next year this law was supplementedby the PLAUTIAN PAPIRIAN LAW, which allowed every citizen of anItalian town the franchise, if he handed in his name to the Praetor atRome within sixty days. About the same time was passed another law,the CALPURNIAN, which permitted Roman magistrates in the field tobestow the franchise on all who wished it. These laws resulted indisorganizing the rebellion. The Samnites and Lucanians held out thelongest, but were finally put down by Marius.
The end of the Social War brought no peace at Rome. The newlyenfranchised Italians were not fully satisfied. The Senate was tornasunder by violent personal rivalries. There was no class not affectedby the wide-spread tightness in the money market. The treasury wasempty, and many capitalists became insolvent. War with Mithradátes,King of Pontus, had been declared, and both Marius and Sulla wereeager to have the command.
At this time (88) the TRIBUNE PUBLIUS SULPICIUS RUFUS brought forwardthe following bills:--
In spite of the bitterest opposition, these bills were passed. But thetriumph of Sulpicius was of short duration. Sulla, who with his troopshad been encamping near Nola in Campania, marched upon the city, andfor the first time a Consul entered Rome at the head of his legions.
CHAPTER XXV.
With the name of MARIUS is usually coupled that of LUCIUS CORNELIUSSULLA (138-78). "He was a patrician of the purest blood, had inheriteda moderate fortune, and had spent it, like other young men of rank,lounging in theatres and amusing himself with dinner parties. He was apoet, an artist, and a wit. Although apparently indolent, he wasnaturally a soldier, statesman, and diplomatist. As Quaestor underMarius in the Jugurthine War, he had proved a most active and usefulofficer." In these African campaigns he showed that he knew how to winthe hearts and confidence of his soldiers; and through his wholesubsequent career, the secret of his brilliant successes seems to havebeen the enthusiastic devotion of his troops, whom he always held wellunder control, even when they were allowed to indulge in plunder andlicense. It was to Sulla's combined adroitness and courage that Mariusowed the final capture of Jugurtha. He served again under Marius inthe campaigns against the Cimbri and Teutones, and gave efficient helptowards the victory. But the Consul became jealous of his risingpower, and all friendly feeling between the two ceased.
After this campaign Sulla lived at Rome for some years, taking no partin politics, and during this time his name and that of his rival arealmost unheard. He appeared before the public again in 93, when he waselected Praetor, and increased his popularity by an exhibition of ahundred lions in the arena, matched against Numidian archers. In 92 hewent as Propraetor to govern the province of Asia, and here he firstmet MITHRADÁTES.
This monarch, who ruled over Pontus, was an extraordinary man. Hespoke many languages, was the idol, of his subjects, and had boundlessambition. He doubted the durability of the Roman Empire, and began toenlarge his own territory, with no apparent fear of Rome'sinterference.
Cappadocia, a neighboring country, was under Roman protection, and wasruled by a prince, ARIOBARZÁNES, that Rome had recognized. Thiscountry Mithradátes attacked. He killed the prince, and placed on thethrone his own nephew.
Rome interfered, and Sulla was instructed to visit the monarch. Heaccomplished his mission with his usual adroitness, and returned toRome with new honors. He took an active part in the Social War,eclipsing the fame of his rival, Marius. He was now the recognizedleader of the conservative and aristocratic party. The feeling betweenthe rivals was more bitter than ever, for Marius, though old, had byno means lost his prestige with the popular party.
It was at this time that Mithradátes, learning of the Social War,thought it a good opportunity to advance his own interests and extendhis realm. He collected all his available forces, and invadedBithynia. With his fleets he sailed through the Dardanelles into theArchipelago. The extortions of the Roman governors had been so great,that Ionia, Lydia, and Caria, with all the islands near Asia Minor,gladly revolted from Rome, and accepted his protection. All the Romanresidents with their families were massacred on a single day. It issaid that 80,000 persons perished. Mithradátes himself next crossedthe Bosphorus, and marched into Northern Greece, which received himwith open arms.
Such was the condition in the East when Sulpicius Rufus carried thebills mentioned in the last chapter. One of these bills was thatMarius have charge of the war against Mithradátes. This was not toSulla's liking. He was in Campania with the legions that had served inthe Social War. The soldiers were devoted to him, and ready to followhim anywhere. Sulla, therefore, taking matters into his own hands,marched into the city at the head of his troops. The people resisted;Sulpicius was slain; Marius fled for his life, and retired to Africa,where he lived for a time, watching the course of events.
Sulla could not remain long at the capital. The affairs of the Eastcalled him away; and no sooner was he gone than the flames of civilwar burst out anew (87).
LUCIUS CORNELIUS CINNA, a friend of Marius, was Consul that year. Hetried to recall Marius, but was violently opposed and finally drivenfrom the city. The Senate declared him deposed from his office. Heinvoked the aid of the soldiers in Campania, and found them ready tofollow him. The neighboring Italian towns sent him men and money, andMarius, coming from Africa, joined him with six thousand troops. Theymarched upon Rome. The city was captured. Cinna was acknowledgedConsul, and the sentence of outlawry which had been passed on Mariuswas revoked.
The next year Marius was made Consul for the seventh time, and Cinnafor the second. Then followed the wildest cruelties. Marius had abody-guard of slaves, which he sent out to murder whomever he wished.The houses of the rich were plundered, and the honor of noble familieswas exposed to the mercy of the slaves. Fortunately Marius diedsixteen days after he entered office, and the shedding of bloodceased.
For the next three years Cinna ruled Rome. Constitutional governmentwas practically suspended. For the years 85 and 84 Cinna himself and atrusty colleague were Consuls, but no regular elections were held. In84, he was murdered, when on the eve of setting out against Sulla inAsia.
Sulla left Italy for the East with 30,000 troops. He marched againstAthens, where Archeláus, the general of Mithradátes, was intrenched.After a long siege, he captured and pillaged the city, March 1, 86.The same year he defeated Archeláus at CHAERONÉA in Boeotia, and thenext year at ORCHOMENOS.
Meanwhile Sulla's lieutenant, LUCULLUS, raised a fleet and gained twovictories off the coast of Asia Minor. The Asiatic king was now readyto negotiate. Sulla crossed the Hellespont in 84, and in a personalinterview with the king arranged the terms of peace, which were asfollows. The king was to give up Bithynia, Paphlagonia, andCappadocia, and withdraw to his former dominions. He was also to payan indemnity amounting to about $3,500,000, and surrender eighty shipsof war.
Having thus settled matters with the king, Sulla punished the Lydiansand Carians, in whose territory the Romans had been massacred, bycompelling them to pay at one time five years' tribute. He was nowready to return to Rome.
The same year that Cinna died, Sulla landed at Brundisium, with 40,000troops and a large following of nobles who had fled from Rome. Everypreparation was made by the Marian party for his reception; but nosooner did he land in Italy than the soldiers were induced to desertto him in immense numbers, and he soon found himself in possession ofall Lower Italy. Among those who hastened to his standard was youngPOMPEY, then but twenty-three years old, and it was to his effortsthat Sulla's success was largely due. The next year, 83, the Marianparty was joined by the Samnites, and the war raged more fiercely thanever. At length, however, Sulla was victorious under the walls ofRome. The city lay at his mercy. His first act, an order for theslaughter of 6,000 Samnite prisoners, was a fit prelude to his conductin the city. Every effort was made to eradicate the last trace ofMarian blood and sympathy from the city. A list of men, declared to beoutlaws and public enemies, was exhibited in the Forum, and asuccession of wholesale murders and confiscations throughout Rome andItaly, made the name of Sulla forever infamous.
Having received the title of Dictator, and celebrated a splendidtriumph for the Mithradátic war, he carried (80-79) his politicalmeasures. The main object of these was to invest the Senate, thethinned ranks of which he filled with his own creatures, with fullcontrol over the state, over every magistrate and every province.
In 79 he resigned his dictatorship and went to Puteoli, where he diedthe next year, from a loathsome disease brought on by his excesses.
Sulla restricted the power of the magistrates to the advantage of theSenate. Senators were alone made eligible for the tribuneship, and noformer Tribune could hold any curule office. No one could be Praetorwithout having first been Quaestor, or Consul without having held thepraetorship. Every candidate for the office of Quaestor must be atleast thirty years old. The number of Praetors was increased from sixto eight; that of Quaestors, from twelve to twenty. The Consuls andPraetors were to remain at Rome during their first year of office, andthen go to the provinces as Proconsuls and Propraetors.
Three hundred new Senators, taken from the Equites, were added, andall who had been Quaestors were made eligible to the Senate.
The control of the courts was transferred from the Equites to theSenate.
On the death of Sulla, in 78, CRASSUS and LEPIDUS were chosen Consuls;but such was the instability of the times that they were sworn not toraise an army during their consulship. Lepidus attempted to evade hisoath by going to Gaul, and, when summoned by the Senate to return,marched against the city at the head of his forces. He was defeated byCrassus and Pompey in 78, and soon after died.
CHAPTER XXVI.
Quintus Sertorius (121-72), a native of the little Sabine village ofNursia under the Apennines, had joined the party of Marius, and servedunder him in the campaigns against the Cimbri and Teutones. In 97 heserved in Spain, and became acquainted with the country with which hisfame is chiefly associated. In 91 he was Quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul.He was a partisan of Marius during his troubles with Sulla, and onSulla's return from the East he left Rome for Spain, where he took thelead of the Marian party. His bravery, kindness, and eloquence pleasedthe Spaniards. Many Roman refugees and deserters joined him. Hedefeated one of Sulla's generals, and drove out of Lusitania(Portugal) METELLUS PIUS,[Footnote: Son of Metellus Numidicus. Hereceived the agnomen of Pius on account of the love which he displayedfor his father, whom he begged the people to recall from banishment in
The object of Sertorius was to establish a government in Spain afterthe Roman model. He formed a Senate of three hundred members, andfounded at Osca a school for native children. He was strict and severetowards his soldiers, but kind to the people. A white fawn was hisfavorite pet and constant follower. He ruled Spain for six years. In77 he was joined by PERPERNA a Roman officer. The same year Pompey,then a young man, was sent to co-operate with Metellus. Sertoriusproved more than a match for both of these generals, and defeated themnear Saguntum.
The position of the Romans was becoming critical, for Sertorius nowformed a league with the pirates of the Mediterranean. He also enteredinto negotiations with Mithradátes, and opened correspondence with theslaves in Italy, who were rebelling.
But intrigues and jealousies arose in his camp. The outcome of thesewas that he was treacherously murdered by Perperna at a banquet in 72,and with his death fell the Marian party in Spain.
Meanwhile a dangerous enemy was threatening Italy within her ownborders. In 73 a band of gladiators, under the leadership of one oftheir number, named SPARTACUS escaped from the training school atCapua and took up a strong position on Mount Vesuvius. They werejoined by large numbers of slaves and outcasts of every description,and were soon in a position to defeat two Praetors who were sentagainst them.
The next year they assumed the offensive; and Spartacus found himselfat the head of 100,000 men. Four generals sent against him weredefeated; and for two years he ravaged Italy at will, and eventhreatened Rome. But intestine division showed itself in his ranks;his lieutenants grew jealous of him, and his strength began to wane.
In 71 the command of the war was given to CRASSUS, who finished it insix months. Spartacus fell, fighting bravely, near Brundisium. Pompey,returning from the Sertorian war in Spain, met five thousand of thosewho had escaped from the array of Spartacus. These he slew to a man.Crassus pointed the moral of his victory by hanging, along the roadfrom Rome to Capua, six thousand captives whom he had taken.
Mithradátes meanwhile, taking advantage of the troubles at Rome, wasagain in arms, and in 74 LUCIUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS was sent againsthim.
Lucullus, of plebeian birth, first distinguished himself in the SocialWar, where he gained the favor of Sulla, and accompanied him, asQuaestor, in his campaign against Mithradátes in 88. With Cotta he waschosen to the consulship in 74. The province of Cilicia was assignedto him, Bithynia to Cotta. Mithradátes invaded Bithynia, defeatedCotta, and besieged him at Chalcédon.
Lucullus, after reorganizing and disciplining his army, went to theaid of his colleague, drove the king into Pontus, and defeated him atCabíra in 72, and his fleet at Tenedos in 71, compelling him to takerefuge with his son-in-law, TIGRÁNES, King of Armenia.
Lucullus endeavored to work reforms in the administration ofprovincial governments in the East. The revenues of the provinces werefarmed out, and the measures of Lucullus were intended to protect thetax-payers against the tax-gatherers (publicani). His reformsmet with bitter opposition at Rome, especially from the Equites, whosechief source of income was often this same tax-farming. Intriguesagainst him by persons sent from Rome began to create dissatisfactionamong his troops. He had been a severe disciplinarian, and so it wasall the easier to turn the soldiers against him.
In 68 he won a victory over Tigránes and Mithradátes, at the riverArsanias; but his legions refused to follow him farther, and he wasobliged to lead them into winter quarters in Mesopotamia. The nextyear his soldiers again mutinied, and he was replaced by Pompey.
Returning to Rome, Lucullus spent the rest of his days in retirement,dying about 57. He was very rich, and was famed for the luxuriousdinners which he gave.
The Sullan system stood for nine years, and was then overthrown, as ithad been established, by a soldier. It was the fortune of Pompey, afavorite officer of Sulla, to cause the first violation of the lawslaid down by his general.
GNEIUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (106-48) led a soldier's life from his boyhoodto his death. When a youth of seventeen he fought by his father's sidein the civil struggles between Marius and Sulla. He was a partisan ofthe latter, and connected himself with the cause of the aristocracy.He defeated the followers of Marius in Sicily and Africa, and in 81was allowed to enjoy a triumph, though still an Eques and not legallyqualified. Sulla then greeted him with the surname of Magnus, which heever afterwards bore. He was then sent to Spain, with what success wehave seen in the previous chapter. In 70 Pompey and MARCUS LICINIUSCRASSUS were elected Consuls amid great enthusiasm.
Crassus (108-53), the conqueror of Spartacus, had amassed immensewealth by speculation, mining, dealing in slaves, and other methods.Avarice is said to have been his ruling passion, though he gave largesums to the people for political effect.
Neither Pompey nor Crassus, according to the laws passed by Sulla, waseligible to the consulship. The former had never been Quaestor, andwas only thirty-five years old; the latter was still Praetor, andought to have waited two years.
The work of Sulla was now quickly undone. The Tribunes regained theirprerogative, the veto. The control of the criminal courts wastransferred again from the Senate to the Equites, and the former bodywas cleared of its most worthless members, who had been appointed bySulla.
For three years (70-67) after the expiration of his consulship, Pompeyremained quietly at Rome. He was then put in charge of an expeditionagainst the Greek pirates. From the earliest times these marauders hadbeen in the habit of depredating on the shores of the Mediterranean.During the civil wars of Rome they had become much bolder, so that thecity was compelled to take an active part against them. They hadparalyzed the trade of the Mediterranean, and even the coasts of Italywere not safe from their raids.
GABINIUS, a Tribune, proposed that Pompey should hold his command forthree years; that he should have supreme authority over all Romanmagistrates in the provinces throughout the Mediterranean, and overthe coasts for fifty miles inland. He was to have fifteen lieutenants,all ex-praetors, two hundred ships, and all the troops he needed.
In three months the pirates were swept from the sea.
The next year (66) Pompey's powers were still further enlarged by theMANILIAN LAW, proposed by the Tribune Manilius. By this law the entirecontrol of the Roman policy in the East was given to Pompey. Hisappointment was violently opposed by the Senate, especially byCATULUS, the "father of the Senate," and by the orator HORTENSIUS; butCICERO with his first political speech (Pro Lege Manilia) cameto Pompey's assistance, and to him was given the command by which hebecame virtually dictator in the East. His operations there werethoroughly successful, and, though he doubtless owed much to theprevious victories of Lucullus, he showed himself an able soldier.Mithradátes was obliged to flee across the Black Sea to Panticapaeum(Kertch).
In the year 64 Pompey went to Syria, took possession of the country inthe name of Rome, and made it a province.
Next he was invited to act as judge between Hyrcánus and Aristobúlus,two aspirants to the Jewish throne. His decision was contrary to thewishes of the people, and to enforce it he led his army againstJerusalem, which he captured after a siege of three months. Heinstalled Hyrcánus on the throne on condition of an annual tribute.
Meanwhile Mithradátes had returned to Pontus for the prosecution ofhis old design; but so great was the terror inspired by the Romanarms, that even his own son refused to join him. Desperate at the turnaffairs had taken, the aged monarch put an end to his own life in 63,after a reign of fifty-seven years. With him ceased for many years allformidable opposition to Rome in Asia.
Besides Syria, Pontus, to which Bithynia was joined, and Crete werenow made provinces. Cilicia was reorganized, and enlarged by theaddition of Pamphylia and Isauria. The three countries in Asia Minornot yet provinces, but dependencies, were Galatia, ruled by Deiotarus;Cappadocia, by Ariobarzánes; and Paphlagonia, by Attalus.
After an absence of nearly seven years, Pompey returned to Rome,January 1, 61, and enjoyed a well earned triumph. He was forty-fiveyears old, had accomplished a really great work, had founded severalcities which afterwards became centres of Greek life and civilization,and was hailed as the conqueror of Spain, Africa, and Asia.
The rest of Pompey's life is closely connected with that of Caesar.His wife, Julia, was Caesar's daughter, and thus far the relationsbetween the two men had been friendly.
Pompey's absence in the East was marked at Rome by the rise topolitical importance of CAESAR and CICERO, and by the conspiracy ofCATILINE.
CHAPTER XXVII.
The Caesars were a family belonging to the Julian gens, whichclaimed descent from IÚLUS, the son of AENÉAS. Eight generations ofCaesars had held prominent places in the commonwealth. They had beenConsuls, Praetors, Censors, Aediles, and were aristocrats of themoderate wing. The direct ancestry of GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR can betraced no further back than his grandfather. This gentleman, of thesame name as the great Caesar, married Marcia, who claimed descentfrom Ancus Marcius, the fourth King of Rome. They had three children,Gaius Julius, the father of the Dictator, Sextus Julius, and Julia,who became the wife of Marius. Gaius Julius held no higher office thanPraetor. He was married to Aurelia, a stately woman of simple andsevere tastes. Their son Gaius was born on July 12th, 100.
During Cinna's consulship (86), Caesar is first mentioned as a youth,tall, slight, handsome, with dark, piercing eyes, sallow complexion,and features refined and intellectual. The bloody scenes attending theproscription of his uncle Marius, to whose party his father belonged,must have made a deep impression upon him. One of his most intimatecompanions was CICERO, who was six years his senior.
Marius had seen in his nephew the materials which make great men, anddetermined to help him to promotion. He made him, when scarcelyfifteen, a priest of Jupiter (flamen dialis), which sacredoffice carried with it a handsome income.
Shortly after the death of his father, in 84, Caesar married Cornelia,the daughter of Cinna. By this marriage he was connected more closelywith the popular party, whose champion he remained.
When Sulla returned to Rome from his Eastern campaign, Caesar was buteighteen. In the wholesale murders that followed, his party wasruined, his nearest friends dispersed or killed. He himself was yetfree from proscription, for Sulla wished to win such a promising youngman to his own side. He made proposals that Caesar divorce his wifeand marry one whom he might select. Caesar refused. Force was thentried. His priesthood was taken from him, and his wife's dowry. Hisestate was confiscated, and, when this had no effect, he was himselfdeclared an outlaw, and a price was set on his head. Influentialfriends, however, interceded in his behalf, and the Dictator wasfinally persuaded to pardon him; but with reluctance, and with theremark that in Caesar was the making of many a Marius. The youth thenleft Italy, and joined the army in Asia.
Here Caesar served his apprenticeship as a soldier. He joined theforces of the Praetor Thermus, who had been sent against the piratesthat were making their head-quarters in Lesbos. The Praetor, findinghis troops insufficient to accomplish his work, sent Caesar toNicomédes, a Roman ally and the King of Bithynia, to obtain additionalforces. He was successful in his mission, and, upon his return toLesbos, distinguished himself for his bravery in the attack uponMityléne, and was awarded the oak wreath, a coveted honor, for savingthe life of a fellow-soldier.
Caesar is next seen in Cilicia, serving under Servilius, in a campaignagainst the pirates who were marauding along the coast of thatcountry. While here he was informed of Sulla's death, and at once leftthe army and returned home (77). The next year he began his strugglewith the nobility by prosecuting for extortion Dolabella, a formerGovernor of Macedonia. Dolabella was a favorite of the Senate, and hiscause was theirs. The best talent was engaged to defend him, andCaesar lost the case.
Feeling his deficiency as an orator, Caesar went to Rhodes and studiedrhetoric under the famous Apollonius. He had recovered his propertyand priesthood, and could well afford the time. While on his way hewas captured by pirates, and not released until a ransom of some$50,000 was raised and paid. Upon arriving at Milétus he at once gottogether some vessels, returned to the island where he had been incaptivity, seized the crew of pirates, took them to Pergamus, and hadthem tried, convicted, and crucified. He then resumed his journey toRhodes, where he remained two years in the pursuit of his studies.Then the report of the uprisal of Mithradátes reached him, and he atonce crossed over to the mainland, collected a body of volunteers, andsaved Caria to Rome.
Having finished his studies, Caesar returned to Rome and lived quietlyfor a time with his wife and mother, watching the course of events.
While Caesar was thus preparing himself for the great struggle inwhich he was destined to take the leading part, Cicero, the companionof his youth, was beginning to attract attention at Rome.
MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO (106-43) was a townsman of Marius. He belongedto the Equites, and received a good education under the best Greekteachers. As he ripened into manhood, he chose in politics the partyopposed to Caesar, and for a profession he selected the bar, hoping togain fame as a speaker before the Senate, and finally to become one ofits members. He took part in the Social War (89), but during thetroubled times that followed he remained quietly engaged in literarypursuits. His first public oration (80), the defence of Roscius, whowas falsely accused of murdering his father, was a great success, andguaranteed for him a brilliant future. Cicero improved the next fewyears by study and travel in Asia and Greece. Shortly after hisreturn, in 75, he was elected Quaestor, and thus became a member ofthe Senate. His year of office he spent in Sicily, in the performanceof his duties. There he obtained an insight into the corruptextortions of the Roman governors. Five years later, he conducted hisfamous case against Verres.
VERRES had been a follower of Sulla, and during the proscriptions hadamassed some property. Afterwards he held official positions in Greeceand Asia, where he became notorious for his greediness and cruelty.With the money thus acquired, he had bought his election to thepraetorship, became Senator, and was sent by his colleagues to governSicily. His government there may have been no worse than that of manyother proconsuls in the different provinces, but we have a fulleraccount of it owing to the prosecution of Cicero, whose speechesagainst Verres are preserved.
Verres was Governor of Sicily for three years. In his officialposition, he was judge of all civil and criminal cases. Every suitbrought before him he gave to the party that could pay him best.Property was confiscated on false charges, and works of art of greatvalue were stolen. By such a course Verres collected, it is said,property to the value of $4,000,000. Two thirds of this he expected tospend in silencing accusations. The rest he hoped to enjoy in peace,but Cicero's eloquence forced him to abandon his defence and retireinto exile.
It was about this time that Caesar finished his rhetorical studiesabroad, and returned home. He was elected Military Tribune as a rewardfor what he had accomplished in Caria. Two years later, in 68, he waselected Quaestor, thereby acquiring a seat in the Senate. At this timehis aunt Julia died, and, as one of her nearest relatives, hedelivered the funeral oration.
Caesar was now beginning to know Pompey, and saw that their interestswere common. The latter, although but six years older, was already agreat man and a distinguished soldier. Cornelia, Caesar's wife, died,and he married for a second wife Pompeia, the cousin of Pompey. Whensent as Quaestor to Farther Spain, in 67, he completed the work begunby Pompey and settled the finances of the troubled country, a taskwhich he found the easier as he was known to belong to the popularparty, of which Marius and Sertorius had been leaders.
| CHAPTER XXVIII. |
While Pompey was absent in the East, matters at Rome were daily becomingworse, and shaping themselves for the speedy overthrow of the Republic.There were many who had suffered under Sulla, and who wereanxious to regain what they had lost, and there were many who,enriched by the Dictator, had squandered their ill-gotten wealth, andnow only waited a leader to renew the assault upon the state. TheSenate was jealous of the power of the people, and the peopledistrusted the Senate.
Among the patricians who were aspiring to the consulship was LUCIUSSERGIUS CATILÍNA, a villain steeped in every crime, but adroit, bold,and withal captivating. In 68 he had been Praetor, the next yearGovernor in Africa, where by his extortions he had obtained enoughmoney, as he hoped, to purchase his election to the consulship. On hisreturn home he was impeached for his misgovernment, but acquittedthrough Cicero's defence and the careful selection of a jury.
He then came forward as candidate for the consulship of the next year
Caesar was rising at the same time. The year previous (65) he had beenCurule Aedile, had built a row of costly columns in front of theCapitol, and erected a temple to the Dioscúri (Castor and Pollux). Butwhat made him especially pleasing to the populace was his lavishdisplay at the public games and exhibitions.
Caesar was now looked upon as a prominent democratic leader. In 63 theoffice of Pontifex Maximus, the head of the state religion, becamevacant by the death of its occupant, Metellus Pius. Caesar became acandidate for the office, and was elected, receiving more votes thanboth the rival candidates combined. He also received further evidenceof the popular favor by being chosen Praetor for the next year (62).
Cicero's consulship would have closed without adding anything to hisfame had it not been for Catiline. The latter's failure to be electedcaused him to enter into a plot to seize and burn the city. He hadmany followers, men of noble families, among whom were the formerConsul Lentulus, who had been recently expelled from the Senate by theCensors, and Cethégus, a bankrupt spendthrift, who was anxious toregain a fortune by a change in government. There were veterans ofSulla, starving peasants who had been dispossessed of their farms, andoutlaws of every description. The conspirators were divided into twoparties; those outside of the city, headed by Marcus Manlius, whosehead-quarters were at Faesulae (Fiesole), where was gathered an armyof trained soldiers; and those inside of the city, headed by Catiline.Here secret meetings were held, the purpose of which was to excite anuprising, kill the magistrates, seize the government, and then unitewith the army in Etruria. Cicero was informed of these meetings byspies, and just before the plans for the uprising were matured, hedisclosed them to the Senate.
Catiline fled from Rome; but his accomplices, of whom Lentulus andCethégus were the most prominent, were arrested in the city. A seriousdifficulty now arose as to the disposition of the prisoners. Lentuluswas at that time Praetor, and the persons of public officers weresacred. The Sempronian Law of Gracchus forbade the executing of anyRoman citizen without giving him a right of appeal to the Assembly.Too many were implicated in the conspiracy for this to be safe.
In the debate in the Senate, the principal speakers were Caesar, Cato,and Cicero.
Cato and Cicero advocated immediate death; Caesar, imprisonment forlife. The motives of the men are so characteristic that they form acomplete key to their several public careers. Cicero, vain andselfish, weak in council, and distrustful of the temper of the peopleand of his own ability to rule their factions, feared that they wouldbecome dangerous enemies to himself; Cato, desiring the reformation ofthe state, would make an example and warning for the future. The one,forgetful of the state, was overcome by personal fears; the other,unmindful of self, would have purity at any cost.
Caesar, on the other hand, wished everything done in strict accordancewith the laws; as a bold and wise statesman, he urged that nothing wasmore impolitic than lawless violence on the part of the rulers. Cicerowas the timid magistrate; Cato, the injudicious reformer; but Caesar,with his keener knowledge and stronger hand, was the safer guide.
A sentence of death was voted; and Cicero, with unseemly haste, causedthe conspirators to be strangled that same night (December 5, 63). Thesuppression of the conspiracy in the city was followed by the defeatof the army in Etruria. Thither Catiline had fled, and there he fellfighting with desperate courage at the head of his motley force ofsoldiers near Pistoria.
The name of "Father of his Country" was given to Cicero for thevigilance shown in this affair.
The execution of Lentulus and Cethégus resulted as Caesar hadexpected. It was a lawless act on the part of the Consul and theSenate, and it was felt that by it the constitution was still moreendangered. The people demanded that Pompey return. In him theythought to have a deliverer from internal strifes.
Cicero was wrapped up in his own conceit, imagining himself a secondRomulus. On the last day of the year (63), as was the custom of theretiring Consuls, he arose in the Forum to deliver a speech, reviewingthe acts of his year of consulship. Metellus Nepos, a Tribune, forbadehis speaking, on the ground that one who had put to death Romancitizens without a hearing did not deserve to be heard. Amid theuproar Cicero could only shout that he had saved his country. Metellusthreatened to impeach him, and excitement in the city was at feverheat. The Tribune moved before the Assembly that Pompey be recalled.The Senate feared his coming. Caesar, who was now Praetor (judge),favored it, and earnestly seconded the proposal of Metellus. Cato, whowas also Tribune, ordered Metellus to stop speaking, and snatched hismanuscript from his hand. The aristocrats drew their swords, and brokeup the meeting. Constitutional law was trampled under foot on allsides. The Senate was riding rough-shod over all opponents. Metellusand Caesar were declared deposed from their offices. The people,however, believed in Caesar. He was followed to his home by crowds,who begged him to be their leader, and make an example of the law-breakers in the Senate. But Caesar refused. He would have nothing todo with lawlessness; he let his opponents play that rôle, andawaited the results. The Senate soon saw its mistake, and requestedhim to resume his official duties.
The next year (61) Caesar was sent to Farther Spain as Propraetor. Hehad already left a favorable impression there as Quaestor. Portions ofthe country were still unsubdued. Many of the mountain passes wereheld by robbers, whose depredations caused much trouble. He completedthe subjugation of the peninsula, put down the brigands, reorganizedthe government, and sent large sums of money to the treasury at Rome.His administration was thorough and complete, and a just reward for itwould, he hoped, be the consulship.
Meanwhile Pompey had returned from the East. He landed at Brundisiumin December, 62, and proceeded with a large band of captured princesand immense treasures to Rome, which he entered in triumph amidst thegreatest enthusiasm. By a special vote of the Senate he was permittedto wear his triumphal robe in that body whenever he pleased.
Caesar returned from Spain in 60, with wealth and military fame.Though feared and detested by the Senate, he was the favorite of thepeople, and could depend upon their support. Pompey had the armybehind him. He received Caesar with pleasure, for he had been a friendin all his career.
Caesar felt that, with the people and the army through Pompey on hisside, he only needed the capitalists to make his success sure. CRASSUSwas counted as the richest man at Rome. He was won over. These threethen formed what is known as the FIRST TRIUMVIRATE,--"a union ofshrewdness, renown, and riches," by which Caesar expected to rise togreat power, Pompey to retain his power, and Crassus to gain greaterwealth.
CHAPTER XXIX.
Pompey was ostensibly at the head of the first Triumvirate, and inreturn supported Caesar in his candidacy for the consulship. Crassuswas to contribute his wealth to influence the election. Caesar waselected without opposition (59); his colleague, the Senate's tool, wasMarcus Bibulus.
Caesar had now reached the highest round in the ladder of politicaloffices. He had shown himself in all his course to be careful inkeeping within the bounds of the constitution, never exerting himselfin political quarrels except to defend the law against lawlessness.Now he was in a position to push his ideas of reform, and to show thearistocracy of what stuff he was made.
It would have been well for Cicero, and better for the state, had theorator been willing to join hands with Caesar and Pompey; but he wastoo vain of his own glory to join hands with those who were hissuperiors, and he clung to the Senate, feeling that his talents wouldshine there more, and be more likely to redound to his own personalfame.
Caesar's consulship increased his popularity among all except thearistocrats. His AGRARIAN LAW, carefully framed and worded, wasbitterly opposed by the Senate, especially by his colleague, Bibulus,and by Cato. The law provided that large tracts of the agerpublicus, then held on easy terms by the rich patricians, bedistributed among the veterans of Pompey. Caesar proposed to pay theholders a reasonable sum for their loss, though legally they had noclaim whatever on the land. Although Bibulus interfered, Cato raved,and the Tribunes vetoed, still the Assembly passed the law, and votedin addition that the Senate be obliged to take an oath to observe it.
The LEGES JULIAE were a code of laws which Caesar drew up during hisyear of office. They mark an era in Roman law, for they cover manycrimes the commission of which had been for a long time underminingthe state.
The most important of these was the LEX DE REPETUNDIS, aimed at theabuses of governors of provinces. It required all governors to make adouble return of their accounts, one to be left in the province openfor inspection, the other to be kept at Rome.
When Caesar's term of office was nearly ended, he obtained from thereluctant Senate his appointment as Proconsul of Gaul for five years.He must leave the city, however, in safe hands, otherwise all his workwould be undone. He managed the consular elections for the next year
There were in Rome, however, two men whom it would be dangerous forCaesar to leave behind. Cato, the ultra aristocrat, hated himbitterly. Cicero, whose ambition was to lead the Senate, a body onlytoo willing to crush Caesar, might do him great harm. It was Caesar'sgood fortune, or, as some believe, the result of his own scheming,that both these men were put temporarily out of the way.
CLODIUS PULCHER was a young aristocrat, notorious for his wildness. Atone time, by assuming the dress of a woman, he had gained admittanceto the festival of Bona Dea, which was celebrated only bywomen. He was discovered and brought to trial before the Senate, butacquitted by means of open bribery. Cicero had been instrumental inbringing him to trial, and Clodius never forgot it. He got adoptedinto a plebeian family in order to be a candidate for the tribuneship,and was successful. He then proposed to the Assembly that any personwho had put to death a Roman citizen without allowing him to appeal tothe people be considered a violator of the constitution. The proposalwas carried. All knew that Cicero was meant, and he fled at once toMacedonia. His property was confiscated, his houses were destroyed,and his palace in the city was dedicated to the Goddess of Liberty.
The kingdom of Cyprus, which had long been attached to that of Egypt,had been bequeathed to Rome at the death of Ptolemy Alexander in 80.The Senate had delayed to accept the bequest, and meanwhile the islandwas ruled by Ptolemy of Cyprus, one of the heirs of the dead king.
Clodius, on the plea that this king harbored pirates, persuaded theAssembly to annex the island, and to send Cato to take charge of it.He accepted the mission, and was absent two years. His duties weresatisfactorily performed, and he returned with about $7,000,000 toincrease the Roman treasury. Thus, Cicero and Cato being out of thecity, the Senate was without a leader who could work injury inCaesar's absence.
CHAPTER XXX.
Caesar was now in the prime of manhood, in the full vigor of mind andbody. His previous experience in camp life had been comparativelysmall. His early service in Asia, and his more recent campaigns inSpain, however, had shown his aptitude for military life.
The Romans had already obtained a foothold in Gaul. Since 118, thesouthern part of the country along the seaboard had been a Romanprovince, called GALLIA NARBONENSIS, from the colony of Narbo whichthe Romans had founded. The rest of Gaul included all modern France,and a part of Switzerland, Holland, and Belgium. The inhabitants wereall of the Celtic race, except a few Germans who had crossed the Rhineand settled in the North, and the AQUITÁNI, who lived in the Southwestand who are represented by the Basques of to-day.
The Gauls were more or less civilized since they had come into contactwith the Romans, but they still had the tribal form of government,like the early Romans. There were more than fifty of these tribes,which were mostly hostile to one another, as well as divided intofactions among themselves. This condition favored a conquest, for thefactions were frequently Roman and non-Roman. Two of the chief tribeswere the AEDUI and SEQUANI. The former had been taken under theprotection of Rome; the latter, impatient of control and Romaninfluence, had invited a tribe of Germans under Ariovistus to comeinto Gaul and settle, and be their allies. These Germans had attackedand conquered the Aeduans, taken from them hostages, and with theSequanians were in the ascendency.
In Switzerland lived the HELVETII. They had so increased in numbersthat their country was too small for them. They therefore proposed toemigrate farther into Gaul, and the Sequanians, whose lands borderedon those of the Helvetians, gave them permission to march throughtheir country.
Such was the state of affairs when Caesar arrived in Gaul. Feelingthat the passage of such a large body of emigrants (368,000) throughGaul would be dangerous to the province (Gallia Narbonensis), hedetermined to interfere. The Helvetians were met at BIBRACTE, nearAutun, and after a terrible battle, which raged from noon until night,were defeated with great slaughter (58). The survivors, about onethird, were treated kindly, and most of them sent back to Switzerland.
Caesar now turned his attention to the Germans who had settled west ofthe Rhine. After several fruitless attempts at negotiation, duringwhich the bad faith of Ariovistus became conspicuous, the forces cametogether. Though the Germans were brave, they were no match for thedrilled legionaries, who fought with the regularity of a machine. Fewof the barbarians escaped, but among these was Ariovistus.
The campaigns of this year being ended, the legions were sent intowinter quarters among the Sequanians under Labiénus, the lieutenant ofCaesar. He himself went into Cisalpine Gaul to attend to his duties asadministrator, and to have communication with his friends at Rome.
While Caesar was in Hither Gaul, he learned from Labiénus that theBELGAE were forming a league to resist the Romans. This peopleoccupied the northeastern part of Gaul, and embraced several tribes,of which the principal were the REMI, BELLOVACI, SUESSIÓNES, andNERVII. The last were the fiercest and least civilized.
Caesar raised two new legions, making eight in all, and marchedagainst the Belgae as soon as the spring opened. His sudden approachalarmed the Remi, who lived nearest to Central Gaul, and theyimmediately put themselves under his protection. From them he learnedthat the Belgae could muster about 300,000 men.
By skilful tactics and a successful attack he put to flight and nearlyannihilated the Suessiónes. The Bellovaci now put themselves under hisprotection, but the Nervii remained in arms. One day, while the sixlegions were forming camp on the bank of the river Sabis, the Nerviiand their allies suddenly rushed upon them from an ambuscade in thewoods on the opposite bank. The troops were entirely unprepared, andso quick was the enemy's charge that the Romans had not time to put ontheir helmets, to remove the covering from their shields, or to findtheir proper places in the ranks. Great confusion followed, and theybecame almost panic-stricken. Caesar rushed into their midst, snatcheda shield from a soldier, and by his presence and coolness revivedtheir courage. The Nervii were checked, and victory was assured. Butthe enemy fought on with a bravery that excited the admiration ofCaesar. Of sixty thousand men scarcely five hundred survived. Thewomen and children were cared for kindly by Caesar, and settled intheir own territory.
The Aduatuci, who had assisted the Nervii in their struggle, wereconquered by Caesar and sold into slavery.
Thus ended the Belgian campaign (57). The legions were put into winterquarters near where the war had been waged, and Caesar went to Italy.In his honor was decreed a thanksgiving lasting fifteen days.
All the tribes in the northwestern part of Gaul (Brittany) except theVENETI had given hostages to Crassus, son of the Triumvir, andlieutenant of Caesar. This tribe refused to give hostages, and,inducing others to join them, seized some Roman officers sent amongthem by Crassus. The campaign of the third year (56) was directedagainst these people. They were mostly sailors and fishermen, withvillages built on the end of promontories and easily defended by land.In a naval engagement, which lasted nearly all day, their whole fleetwas destroyed. The leaders of the Veneti were put to death for theirtreachery in seizing Roman officers, and the rest were sold intoslavery.
The legions spent the winter of 56-55 in the northern part of Gaul,among the Aulerci and neighboring tribes.
During this winter another wave of Germans passed over the Rhine intoGaul. They had been driven from their homes by a powerful tribe calledthe SUEVI. In the spring of 55 Caesar collected his troops andadvanced to within twelve miles of the German camp, and gave theinvaders twenty-four hours to leave the country. Before the expirationof the time, they attacked Caesar's outposts, killing several Knights,and two men of aristocratic families. In the general engagement thatfollowed, the Germans were totally routed and most of them were slain.
Caesar next determined to cross the Rhine into Germany, thinking thusto inspire the Germans with greater fear of the Romans. He built hisfamous bridge, crossed it, remained eighteen days in Germany, and,thinking his object accomplished, returned to Gaul, destroying thebridge behind him.
It was now August and Caesar occupied the rest of the season bycrossing the Channel to Britain (England). Landing near Deal, with butlittle resistance on the part of the natives, he explored the countryfor a short time, and returned in September, as the equinox was nearand the weather unsettled. The legions were sent into winter quartersamong the Belgae, and Caesar set out for Cisalpine Gaul.
During this winter (55-54), orders were given to build a large fleet,as Caesar intended to return to Britain the next year. After allpreparations were completed, he set sail, July 20, 54, and the nextday landed on the island. He defeated the Britons under their leaderCASSIVELAUNUS, and compelled them to pay tribute and give hostages.Many thousand prisoners were taken, and sold in Italy as slaves.
In the winter of 54-53 the legions were distributed among severaltribes. That stationed in the territory of the Eburónes was commandedby the lieutenants, Gabínus and Cotta. News reached the encampmentthat there was an uprisal of the Eburónes. It was decided to break upcamp, and go, if possible, to the winter quarters of their nearestcompanions. On the march they were surprised and nearly all killed.Only a few stragglers carried the news to Labiénus, who was winteringwith a legion among the Remi.
This success moved the Nervii to attack Quintus Cicero, the lieutenantwho was wintering with his legion among them. Word was sent to Caesar,who had fortunately not yet left Gaul. He hastened to Cicero's relief,raised the siege, and all but annihilated the revolting Nervii.
In 53 Caesar punished the Eburónes for their action in the previouswinter. The tribe was completely destroyed, but their leader,Ambiorix, escaped and was never captured. During this summer Caesaragain crossed the Rhine. At the close of the summer he returned toCisalpine Gaul, supposing that the Gauls were totally subdued. He wasmistaken. The patriotism of the people was not yet extinguished. Thechiefs of all the tribes secretly established communication with eachother. A day was settled upon for a general uprising. The Romaninhabitants of Genabum, on the Liger, were massacred. The leadingspirit in this last struggle of the Gauls was VERCINGETORIX, chief ofthe Averni.
Caesar hastened across the Alps, surmounted the difficulties ofcrossing the Cevennes when the snow was very deep, collected hislegions, marched upon Genabum, and plundered and burnt the town.
Vercingetorix saw that he was no match for the legions in open battle.He proposed, therefore, to cut off Caesar's supplies by burning allthe towns of the Bituriges, and laying the country waste. Avaricumalone was spared. Within its walls were placed the best of their goodsand a strong garrison. Thither Caesar marched, and, after a welldefended siege, captured the town and killed every person in it,excepting eight hundred, who escaped to the camp of Vercingetorix.Large quantities of corn were taken, with which Caesar supplied hissoldiers. He then marched against Gergovia, the capital of the Averni.As the town was on a high plateau, and too strong to be stormed, helaid siege to it. A part of the army, contrary to instructions, oneday attempted to assault the place. The battle which followed wasdisastrous to the Romans, and the only defeat Caesar received in Gaul.Forty-six officers and seven hundred men fell. The siege was raised.It was a serious position for Caesar. All Gaul was in flames.Retreating at once, he formed a junction with Labiénus at Agendicum,and with all his troops started for Gallia Narbonensis to protect itfrom invasion.
On his route was ALESIA. Here Vercingetorix was intrenched with eightythousand troops. It was, like Gergovia, situated on a hill andconsidered impregnable. Caesar laid siege to this place (52).Vercingetorix appealed to all Gaul for aid. Hardly had the fortressbeen invested when Caesar's army was surrounded by an immense force ofGauls that had come to the rescue. Caesar needed now all his skill andgenius. But they did not fail him. The relieving army, though fivetimes as large as his, was driven back and sent flying home.
Seeing that all was over, Vercingetorix called a council of his chiefsand advised surrender. A message was sent to Caesar. He demandedunconditional surrender, and was obeyed. The people were sold intoslavery, and the money obtained distributed among the soldiers.Vercingetorix was kept to be exhibited in the triumph at Rome, andafterwards died in a dungeon.
With the fall of Alesia, the subjugation of Gaul was practicallycompleted.
The next year (51) Caesar honored several chiefs with privileges; someof the nobles were granted the franchise, and some admitted to theSenate. The work of Romanizing Gaul was fairly begun. Two provinceswere formed, Gallia and Belgica, and later (17 A. D.) the former ofthese was subdivided into Lugdunensis and Aquitania. Roman money wasintroduced, and Latin became the official language.
CHAPTER XXXI.
During the nine years (59-50) passed by Caesar in Gaul, greatconfusion prevailed at Rome. The Republic needed a strong, firm hand,which would stop the shedding of blood and insure security of personand property. Pompey had attempted to bring about this result, but hadfailed. There were two prominent factions, one led by CLODIUS, theother by MILO.
"Clodius is the most extraordinary figure in this extraordinaryperiod. He had no character. He had no distinguished talent save forspeech; he had no policy; he was ready to adopt any cause or personwhich for the moment was convenient to him; and yet for five yearsthis man was the leader of the Roman mob. He could defy justice,insult the Consuls, beat the Tribunes, parade the streets with a gangof armed slaves, killing persons disagreeable to him; and in theSenate itself he had high friends and connections, who threw a shieldover him when his audacity had gone beyond endurance." Milo was asdisreputable as Clodius. His chief fame had been gained in the schoolsof the gladiators. Gangs of armed slaves accompanied him everywhere,and there were constant collisions between his retainers and those ofClodius.
In 57 Consuls were elected who favored Cicero, and his recall wasdemanded. Clodius and his followers opposed the recall. The nobles,led by their tool Milo, pressed it. Day after day the opposing partiesmet in bloody affrays. For seven months the brawl continued, tillMilo's party finally got the ascendancy; the Assembly was convened,and the recall voted.
For seventeen months Cicero had been in Greece, lamenting his hardlot. He landed at Brundisium on August 5, 57, and proceeded to Rome.Outside the city all men of note, except his avowed enemies, werewaiting to receive him. The Senate voted to restore his property, andto rebuild his palace on the Palatine Hill and his other villas at thepublic expense. But Clodius, with his bands of ruffians, interruptedthe workmen engaged in the repair of his Palatine house, broke downthe walls, and, attacking Cicero himself, nearly murdered him.
At last Clodius even attempted to burn the house of Milo. The longstruggle between these two ruffians culminated when Milo was acandidate for the consulship, and Clodius for the praetorship. The twomeeting by accident in the Via Appia at Bovillae, Clodius wasmurdered, 20 January, 52. This act of violence strengthened Pompey,who was nominated sole Consul. Milo was impeached. His guilt wasevident, and he went into exile at Massilia. Cicero prepared anelaborate speech in his defence, but did not dare to deliver it.
During the interval between the two campaigns of 57 and 56, Caesarrenewed his alliance with his two colleagues in interviews that wereheld at Ravenna and Luca. He retained the command of Gaul; Pompey,that of Spain; Crassus, that of Syria.
CRASSUS now undertook the war against the Parthians. He wasaccompanied by his son, who had done good service under Caesar inGaul. They arrived at Zeugma, a city of Syria, on the Euphrátes; andthe Romans, seven legions strong, with four thousand cavalry, drewthemselves up along the river. The Quaestor, CASSIUS, a man ofability, proposed to Crassus a plan of the campaign, which consistedin following the river as far as Seleucia, in order not to beseparated from his fleet and provisions, and to avoid being surroundedby the cavalry of the enemy. But Crassus allowed himself to bedeceived by an Arab chief, who lured him to the sandy plains ofMesopotamia at Carrhae.
The forces of the Parthians, divided into many bodies, suddenly rushedupon the Roman ranks, and drove them back. The young Crassus attempteda charge at the head of fifteen hundred horsemen. The Parthiansyielded, but only to draw him into an ambush, where he perished, aftergreat deeds of valor. His head, carried on the end of a pike, wasborne before the eyes of his unhappy father, who, crushed by grief anddespair, gave the command into the hands of Cassius. Cassius gaveorders for a general retreat. The Parthians subjected the Roman armyto continual losses, and Crassus himself was killed in a conference
In this disastrous campaign there perished more than twenty thousandRomans. Ten thousand were taken prisoners and compelled to serve asslaves in the army of the Parthians.
The death of Crassus broke the Triumvirate; that of Julia, in 54, hadsundered the family ties between Caesar and Pompey, who marriedCornelia, the widow of the young Crassus, and daughter of MetellusScipio.
CHAPTER XXXII.
Pompey was elected sole Consul in February, 52. He at once threw offall pretence of an alliance with Caesar, and devoted himself to theinterests of the Senate and aristocracy.
The brilliant successes of Caesar in Gaul had made a profoundimpression upon the minds of the citizens, to whom the name of thenorthern barbarians was still fraught with terror. Caesar had won forhimself distinction as a soldier greater than the Scipios, or Sulla,or Pompey. "He was coming back to lay at his country's feet a provincelarger than Spain, not only subdued, but reconciled to subjugation; anation of warriors, as much devoted to him as his own legions." Thenobility had watched his successes with bitter envy; but they wereforced to vote a thanksgiving of twenty days, which "the people madesixty."
Caesar now declared through his followers at Rome that he desired asecond consulship. But he wished first to celebrate his triumph, andon this account would not disband his army; for, according to thecustom, he could not triumph without it. According to another custom,however, he must disband it before he could offer himself as acandidate for the consulship. But he asked permission to set asidethis custom, and to become a candidate while he was in the province incommand of the army.
The law requiring a candidate to give up his command had beensuspended several times before this; so that Caesar's request wasreasonable. His enemies in the city were numerous and powerful, and hefelt that, if he returned as a private citizen, his personal safetywould be in danger; whereas, if he were a magistrate, his person wouldbe considered sacred.
The Senate, on the other hand, felt that, if he carried his point, thedays of their influence were numbered. Their first step, therefore,was to weaken Caesar, and to provide their champion, Pompey, with aforce in Italy, They voted that Caesar should return to Pompey alegion which had been loaned him, and also should send another legionback to Italy. The vote was taken on the ostensible plea that thetroops were needed in Asia Minor against the Parthians; but when theyreached Italy they were placed under Pompey's command in Campania. TheConsuls chosen for the year 49 were both bitter enemies of Caesar. Hehad taken up his winter quarters at Ravenna, the last town in hisprovince bordering on Italy. From here he sent a messenger withletters to the Senate, stating that he was ready to resign hiscommand, if Pompey did the same. The messenger arrived at Rome,January 1, 49, on the day in which the new Consuls entered upon theirduties.
The letters were read in the Senate, and there followed a spiriteddiscussion, resulting in a decree that Caesar should resign hiscommand. The Tribunes opposed; but, being threatened by the Consuls,they were compelled to leave the city, and went directly to Ravenna.
When the action of the Senate was reported to Caesar, he calledtogether his soldiers, and addressed them thus: "For nine years I andmy army have served our country loyally and with some degree ofsuccess. We have driven the Germans across the Rhine; we have madeGaul a province; and the Senate, for answer, has broken theconstitution in setting aside the Tribunes who spoke in my defence. Ithas voted the state in danger, and has called Italy to arms, when nosingle act of mine can justify it in this course." The soldiers becameenthusiastic, and were eager to follow their leader without pay.Contributions were offered him by both men and officers. LABIENUS, histrusted lieutenant, alone proved false. He stole away, and joinedPompey. Caesar then sent for two legions from across the Alps. Withthese legions he crossed the RUBICON into Italy, and marched toAriminum.
Meanwhile the report of his movements reached Rome. The aristocracyhad imagined that his courage would fail him, or that his army woulddesert. Thoroughly frightened, Consuls, Praetors, Senators,-leavingwives, children, and property to their fate,-fled from the city toseek safety with Pompey in Capua. They did not stop even to take themoney from the treasury, but left it locked.
Caesar paused at Ariminum, and sent envoys to the Senate, stating thathe was still desirous of peace. If Pompey would depart to his provincein Spain, he would himself disband his own troops. He was even willingto have a personal interview with Pompey. This message was received bythe Senate after its flight from Rome. The substance of its reply was,that Pompey did not wish a personal interview, but would go to Spain,and that Caesar must leave Ariminum, return to his province, and givesecurity that he would dismiss his army.
These terms seemed to Caesar unfair, and he would not accept them.Accordingly he sent his lieutenant, Mark Antony, across the mountainsto Arretium, on the road to Rome. He himself pushed on to Ancóna,before Pompey could stop him. The towns that were on his march threwopen their gates, their garrisons joined his army, and their officersfled. Steadily he advanced, with constantly increasing forces, untilwhen he reached Corfinium his army had swelled to thirty thousandtroops.
This place had been occupied by Domitius with a party of aristocratsand a few thousand men. Caesar surrounded the town, and when Domitiusendeavored to steal away, his own troops took him and delivered himover to Caesar. The capture of Corfinium and the desertion of itsgarrison filled Pompey and his followers with dismay. They hurried toBrundisium, where ships were in readiness for them to depart.
Hoping to intercept Pompey, Caesar hastened to this port. On hisarrival outside of the town, the Consuls, with half the army, hadalready gone. Pompey, however, was still within the place, with twelvethousand troops, waiting for transports to carry them away. He refusedto see Caesar; and, though the latter endeavored to blockade the port,he was unsuccessful, owing to want of ships.
Thus Pompey escaped. With him were the Consuls, more than half theSenate, and the aristocracy. Caesar would have followed them, but afleet must first be obtained, and matters nearer home demanded hisattention.
In sixty days Caesar had made himself master of Italy. On his way toRome he met Cicero, and invited him to attend the Senate, but hepreferred to stay away. Caesar entered the city unattended, andassembled the Senate through the Tribunes, Mark Antony and CassiusLongínus. The attendance was small, as most of the members were withPompey. In his address to the Senate Caesar spoke of his ownforbearance and concessions, of their unjust demands, and theirviolent suppression of the authority of the Tribunes. He was stillwilling to send envoys to treat with Pompey, but no one was foundwilling to go. After three days spent in useless discussion, Caesardecided to act for himself. By his own edict, he restored the childrenof the victims of Sulla's proscription to their rights and property.The money in the treasury was voted him by the Assembly of the people.He took as much of it as he needed, and started at once for Gaul tojoin his troops on his way to Spain.
He had much to accomplish. Spain was in the hands of Pompey'slieutenants, Afranius, Petreius, and Varro, who had six legions andallied troops. From Sicily and Sardinia came most of the grainsupplies of Rome, and it was important to hold these islands. ToSicily he sent Curio and to Sardinia Valerius. Cato, who was in chargeof Sicily, immediately abandoned it and fled to Africa. Sardiniareceived Caesar's troops with open arms.
Upon his arrival in Gaul, Caesar found that the inhabitants ofMassilia had risen against his authority, led by the same Domitiuswhom he had sent away unharmed from Corfinium. Caesar blockaded thecity, and, leaving Decimus Brutus in charge of operations, continuedhis journey to Spain. He found Afranius and Petreius stronglyintrenched at ILERDA in Catalonia (Northern Spain). Within forty dayshe brought them to terms, and Varro, who was in Southern Spain, waseager to surrender. All Spain was at his feet.
Before leaving Spain, Caesar summoned the leading Spaniards and Romansto Cordova, for a conference. All promised obedience to his authority.He then set sail from Gades to Tarragóna, where he joined his legionsand marched back to Massilia, which he found hard pressed and ready tosurrender. The gates were opened. All were pardoned, and Domitius wasallowed to escape a second time.
Caesar left a portion of his forces in Gaul, and with the rest arrivedat Rome in the early winter of 49-48. Thus far he had been successful.Gaul, Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, and Italy were his. He had notsucceeded, however, in getting together a naval force in the Adriatic,and he had lost his promising lieutenant, Curio, who had beensurprised and killed in Africa, whither he had gone in pursuit of Catoand Pompey's followers.
During Caesar's absence, affairs at Rome had resumed their usualcourse. He had left the city under charge of his lieutenant, AemiliusLepidus, and Italy in command of Mark Antony. Caesar was still atMassilia, when he learned that the people of Rome had proclaimed himDictator. Financial troubles in the city had made this step necessary.Public credit was shaken. Debts had not been paid since the civil warbegan. Caesar allowed himself only eleven days in Rome. In this timeestimates were drawn of all debts as they were one year before, theinterest was remitted and the principal declared still due. Thismeasure relieved the debtors somewhat.
It was now nearly a year since Caesar crossed the Rubicon. Pompey,during the nine months that had elapsed since his escape fromBrundisium, had been collecting his forces in Epírus. Here hadgathered many princes from the East, a majority of the Senatorialfamilies of Rome, Cato and Cicero, the vanquished Afranius, and therenegade Labiénus. There were nine full legions, with cavalry andauxiliaries, amounting in all to 100,000 men.
Caesar reached Brundisium at the end of the year 49. His forces werefewer in number than those of his adversary, amounting to not morethan 15,000 infantry and 600 cavalry. But his legionaries were allveterans, inured to toil and hunger, to heat and cold, and every manwas devoted to his leader.
On the 4th of January he set sail from Brundisium, landing after anuneventful voyage at Acroceraunia. He advanced at once towardsDyrrachium where were Pompey's head-quarters, occupied Apollonia, andintrenched himself on the left bank of the river Apsus. The countrywas well disposed and furnished him with ample supplies.
Caesar sent back the vessels on which he crossed to transport hisremaining troops, but they were intercepted on their way across andmany of them destroyed. He was therefore compelled to confine himselfto trifling operations, until his lieutenant, Mark Antony, could fitout a second fleet and bring over the remainder of his legions. WhenAntony finally crossed, he landed one hundred miles up the coast.Pompey's forces were between him and Caesar, and his position was fullof danger; but Caesar marched rapidly round Dyrrachium, and joined himbefore Pompey knew of his movements.
The great general was now ready for action. He built a line ofstrongly fortified forts around Pompey's camp, blockading him by land.He turned the streams of water aside, causing as much inconvenience aspossible to the enemy. So the siege dragged on into June.
Two deserters informed Pompey of a weak spot in Caesar's line. At thispoint Pompey made a sudden attack. For once Caesar's troops weresurprised and panic-stricken. Even his own presence did not cause themto rally. Nearly one thousand of his men fell, thirty-two standards,and a few hundred soldiers were captured.
This victory was the ruin of Pompey's cause. Its importance wasexaggerated. His followers were sure that the war was practicallyover; and so certain were they of ultimate success that they neglectedto follow up the advantage gained, and gave Caesar opportunity torecover from the blow.
The latter now retired from the sea-board into Thessaly. Pompeyfollowed, confident of victory. The nobles in his camp amusedthemselves with quarrelling about the expected spoils of war. Cato andCicero remained behind in Epirus, the former disgusted at the actionsof the degenerate nobility, the latter pleading ill health.
The two armies encamped on a plain in Thessaly near the river Enipeus,only four miles apart. Between them lay a low hill called PHARSÁLUS,which gave name to the battle which followed.
"The battle of PHARSALIA (August 9, 48) has acquired a special placein history, because it was fought by the Roman aristocracy in theirown persons in defence of their own supremacy. Senators and the sonsof Senators, the heirs of the names and fortunes of the ancient Romanfamilies, the leaders of society in Roman salons, and the chiefs ofthe political party of the optimates (aristocracy) were here presenton the field. The other great actions were fought by the ignoblemultitude whose deaths were of less significance. The plains ofPharsalia were watered by the precious blood of the elect of theearth."
For several days the armies watched each other without decisiveaction. One morning towards the end of May (August 9, old style)Caesar noticed a movement in Pompey's lines that told him the expectedattack was coming.
The position of the Senatorial army was well taken. Its right wingrested on the Enipeus, its left was spread out on the plain. Pompeyhimself commanded the left with the two legions the Senate had takenfrom Caesar. Outside him on the plain were his allies covered by thecavalry. Opposite Pompey was Caesar, with the famous Tenth Legion. Hisleft and centre were led by his faithful Tribunes, Mark Antony andCassius Longínus.
At the given signal Caesar's front ranks advanced on a run, threwtheir darts, drew their swords, and closed in. At once Pompey'scavalry charged, outflanking the enemy's right wing, and driving backthe opposing cavalry, who were inferior in numbers. But as theyadvanced flushed with victory, Caesar's fourth line, which he had heldin reserve, and which was made up of the flower of his legions,appeared in their way. So fierce was their attack that the Pompeianswavered, turned, and fled. They never rallied. The fourth line threwthemselves upon Pompey's left wing, which was now unprotected. Thiswing, composed of Caesar's old veterans, was probably in no mood tofight its former comrades in arms. At any rate, it turned and fled.Pompey himself mounted his horse and rode off in despair. Thus thebattle ended in a rout. But two hundred of Caesar's men fell, whilefifteen thousand of the enemy lay dead on the field.
The abandoned camp was a remarkable sight. The luxurious patricianshad built houses of turf with ivy trained over the entrances toprotect their delicate skins from the sun's rays; couches werestretched out ready for them to take repose after their expectedvictory, and tables were spread with dainty food and wines on which tofeast. As he saw these preparations Caesar exclaimed, "These are themen who accused my suffering, patient army, which needed the commonnecessaries of life, of dissoluteness and profligacy." But Caesarcould not delay. Leaving a portion of his forces in camp, by rapidmarching he cut off the retreat of the enemy. Twenty-four thousandsurrendered, all of whom were pardoned. Domitius, whom we saw atCorfinium and Massilia, was killed trying to escape. Labiénus,Afranius, and Petreius managed to steal away by night. Thus ended thebattle of Pharsalia.
| CHAPTER XXXIII. |
Pompey, in his flight from Pharsalia, hastened by the shortest way tothe sea, and, seeing a vessel weighing anchor, embarked with a fewcompanions who had accompanied him in his flight. He went to Mityléne,and from there to Egypt, hoping to obtain an asylum with the youngPTOLEMY; but he was seized upon his arrival, and beheaded, 28September, 48.
Just before his death Pompey had completed his fifty-eighth year."Though he had some great and good qualities, he hardly deserved thesurname of GREAT. He was certainly a good soldier, and is said to haveexcelled in all athletic sports, but he fell short of being a first-class general. He won great successes in Spain, and more especially inthe East; but for these he was, no doubt, partly indebted to whatothers had already done. Of the gifts which make a good statesman, hehad really none. He was too weak and irresolute to choose a side andstand by it. Pitted against such a man as Caesar, he could not butfail. But to his credit be it said, that in a corrupt time he neverused his opportunities for plunder and extortion."
Meanwhile Caesar, pursuing his victory with indefatigable activity,set sail for Egypt. Upon his arrival the head of his enemy was broughtto him. He turned from the sight with tears in his eyes. The murderersnow saw what would be their fate. Ptolemy was at variance with hissister, the famous CLEOPÁTRA, Caesar sided with her. The inhabitantsof Alexandría revolted, and besieged Caesar in the palace; but with ahandful of soldiers he bravely baffled their attacks. Setting fire tothe neighboring buildings, he escaped to his ships. Afterwards hereturned and wreaked vengeance upon the Alexandrians, establishingCLEOPÁTRA upon the throne (47).
Satisfied with this vengeance, Caesar left Egypt, and went to Pontus,where PHARNACES, son of Mithradátes, was inciting a revolt againstRome. Caesar attacked and defeated him at ZELA (47), with a rapidityrendered proverbial by his words, Veni, vidi, vici, I CAME, ISAW, I CONQUERED.
He now passed quickly down the Hellespont, and had landed in Italybefore it was known that he had left Pontus. During his absence fromthe capital there had been some minor disturbances; but the mass ofthe citizens were firmly attached to him. Few could distrust thegenius and fortune of the irresistible conqueror. In October of 48 hehad been made Dictator a second time, and appointed Tribune for life.
Caesar's return in September, 47, was marked by no proscription. Heinsisted that all debts should be paid, and the rights of propertyrespected. He restored quiet, and after a brief stay of three monthsprepared to transport his army to Africa. The army was in Campania,but discontented and mutinous because of not receiving the expectedprivilege of pillage and plunder. They refused to move until certainpromised rewards were received. The Tenth Legion broke out into openrevolt, and marched from Campania to Rome to obtain their rights.Caesar collected them in the Campus Martins, and asked them to statetheir grievances. They demanded their discharge. "I grant it,citizens" (Quirites), said the Imperator. Heretofore he hadalways addressed them as "fellow soldiers," and the implied rebuke wasso keen, that a reaction at once began, and they all begged to bereceived again into his service. He accepted them, telling them thatlands had been allotted to each soldier out of the agerpublicus, or out of his own estates.
Africa must now be subdued. Since the defeat and death of Curio, KingJUBA had found no one to dispute his authority. Around him now ralliedall the followers of Pompey, Metellus Scipio, Cato, Labiénus,Afranius, Petreius, and the slain general's two sons, Sextus andGnaeus Pompeius.
Utica was made their head-quarters. Here Cato collected thirteenlegions of troops of miscellaneous character. Raids were made uponSicily, Sardinia, and the coasts of Italy. Caesar's officers, ifcaptured, were put to death without mercy.
Cicero alone of the old Pompeian party protested against suchcruelties. He remained in Italy, was denounced by them as a traitor,and charged with currying favor of the Dictator.
Caesar sailed from Lilybaeum (December 19), effected a landing nearLeptis, and maintained himself in a fortified position until he formeduseful alliances among the Mauretanians. Many Roman residents in theprovince came to him, indignant at Metellus Scipio's promise to Jubato give the province to him in case of success. Many deserters alsocame in, enraged that precedence was given to Juba over Scipio incouncils of war. But the enemy's army was kept full of new recruitssent from Utica by Cato.
For three months Caesar failed to bring on the desired engagement;Scipio had learned caution from Pompey's experience at Pharsalia.Finally, at THAPSUS, one hundred miles southeast of Carthage, April 4,46, the armies met. Caesar's men were so enthusiastic that they rushedto the charge with one impulse. There was no real battle, but rather aslaughter. Officers and men fled for their lives. Scipio wasintercepted in his flight and slain. Juba and Petreius fled together,but, finding their retreat cut off, engaged, it is said, in mortalcombat; when the first, Petreius, fell, the other threw himself on hisown sword. Labiénus and the two sons of Pompey managed to escape toSpain. Afranius was captured and executed.
Cato, when he heard of the defeat, retired to his chamber in Utica,and committed suicide.
Thus ended the African campaign.
On his return from Africa, Caesar celebrated four triumphs, on foursuccessive days; one over the Gauls, one over Ptolemy of Egypt, oneover Pharnaces, and one over Juba. He gratified his armed followerswith liberal gifts, and pleased the people by his great munificence.They were feasted at a splendid banquet, at which were twenty-twothousand tables, each table having three couches, and each couch threepersons. Then followed shows in the circus and theatre, combats ofwild beasts and gladiators, in which the public especially delighted.
Honors were now heaped upon Caesar without stint. A thanksgiving offorty days was decreed. His statue was placed in the Capitol. Anotherwas inscribed to Caesar the Demigod. A golden chair was allotted tohim in the Senate-House. The name of the fifth month (Quintilis)of the Roman calendar was changed to JULIUS (July). He wasappointed Dictator for two years, and later for life. He received forthree years the office of Censor, which enabled him to appointSenators, and to be guardian of manners and morals. He hadalready been made Tribune (48) for life, and Pontifex Maximus (63). Ina word, he was king in everything excepting name.
Caesar's most remarkable and durable reform at this period was theREVISION OF THE CALENDAR. The Roman method of reckoning time had beenso inaccurate, that now their seasons were more than two monthsbehind. Caesar established a calendar, which, with slight changes, isstill in use. It went into operation January 1st, 45. He employedSosigenes, an Alexandrian astronomer, to superintend the reform.
While Sosigenes was at work on the calendar, Caesar purified theSenate. Many who were guilty of extortion and corruption wereexpelled, and the vacancies filled with persons of merit.
Meanwhile matters in Spain were not satisfactory. After the battle ofPharsalia, Cassius Longinus, Trebonius, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidushad been sent to govern the province. They could not agree. Thesoldiers became mutinous. To Spain flocked all who were dissatisfiedwith Roman affairs. The remnant of Scipio's African army rested therein its wanderings. Thus Labiénus and Pompey's two sons managed tocollect an army as numerous as that which had been defeated atThapsus. There were thirteen legions in all.
Caesar saw that he must make one more struggle. He set out for theprovince accompanied by his nephew OCTAVIUS (afterwards the EmperorAUGUSTUS), and by his trusted friend and officer, DECIMUS BRUTUS. Thestruggle in Spain was protracted for several months, but the decisivebattle was fought at MUNDA, 17 March, 45, on the Guadalquivir, nearCordova. The forces were well matched. The advantage in position wason the side of the enemy. The battle was stubbornly fought, most of ithand to hand, with short swords. So equal was the struggle, sodoubtful at one time the issue, that Caesar himself sprang from hishorse, seized a standard, and rallied a wavering legion. Finally,Labiénus was seen to gallop across the field. It was thought he wasfleeing. Panic seized his troops, they broke and ran. Thirty thousandwere slain, including three thousand Roman Knights, and Labiénushimself.
Gnaeus Pompey shortly after lost his life, but Sextus lived for anumber of years.
Caesar tarried in Spain, regulating affairs, until late in the autumn,when he returned to Rome and enjoyed another triumph over the Iberians(Spaniards). The triumph was followed, as usual, by games andfestivals, which kept the populace in a fever of delight andadmiration.
MARCUS PORTIUS CATO UTICENSIS [Footnote: Cato the Younger, calledUTICENSIS on account of his death at Utica.] (95-46) was the great-grandson of Cato the Censor. He was the last of the Romans of the oldschool. Like his more famous ancestor, he was frugal and austere inhis habits, upright, unselfish, and incorruptible. But he was afanatic, who could not be persuaded to relinquish his views on anysubject. As a general, he was a failure, having neither taste norgenius for military exploits. He held various offices at Rome, asQuaestor and Praetor; but when candidate for the consulship he wasdefeated, because he declined to win votes by bribery and otherquestionable methods then in vogue.
QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS PIUS belonged to the illustrious family ofthe Scipios by birth, and to that of the Metelli by adoption. He wasone of the most unjust and dishonest of the Senators that opposedCaesar. He was the father-in-law of Pompey, by whom he was made apliant tool against the great conqueror.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
Upon his return from Spain, Caesar granted pardon to all who hadfought against him, the most prominent of whom were GAIUS CASSIUS,MARCUS BRUTUS, and CICERO. He increased the number of the Senate tonine hundred. He cut off the corn grants, which nursed the city mob inidleness. He sent out impoverished men to colonize old cities. Herebuilt Corinth, and settled eighty thousand Italians on the site ofCarthage. As a censor of morals he was very rigid. His own habits weremarked by frugality. The rich young patricians were forbidden to becarried about in litters, as had been the custom. Libraries wereformed. Eminent physicians and scientists were encouraged to settle inRome. The harbor of Ostia was improved, and a road constructed fromthe Adriatic to the Tyrrhenian Sea, over the Apennines. A temple toMars was built, and an immense amphitheatre was erected at the foot ofthe Tarpeian Rock.
In the midst of this useful activity he was basely murdered.
CASSIUS LONGINUS and MARCUS JUNIUS BRUTUS were the leaders in theconspiracy to effect Caesar's death, Cassius, a former lieutenant ofCrassus, had shown great bravery in the war with the Parthians. AtPharsalia he fought on the side of Pompey, but was afterwards pardonedby Caesar. He was married to a sister of Brutus. The latter, a nephewand son-in-law of Cato, had also fought at Pharsalia against Caesar,and also been pardoned by him. Cassius, it was said, hated the tyrant,and Brutus tyranny.
These conspirators were soon joined by persons of all parties; and menwho had fought against each other in the civil war now joined hands.Cicero was not taken into the plot. He was of advanced years, and allwho knew him must have felt that he would never consent to the takingthe life of one who had been so lenient towards his conquered enemies.
On the morning of the IDES (15th) OF MARCH, 44, as Caesar entered theSenate and took his seat, he was approached by the conspirators,headed by Tullius Cimber, who prayed for the pardon of his exiledbrother; and while the rest joined him in the request, he, graspingCaesar's hand, kissed his head and breast. As Caesar attempted torise, Cimber dragged his cloak from his shoulders, and Casca, who wasstanding behind his chair, stabbed him in the neck. The first blow wasstruck, and the whole pack fell upon their noble victim. Cassiusstabbed him in the face, and Marcus Brutus in the groin. He made nofurther resistance; but, wrapping his gown over his head and the lowerpart of his body, he fell at the base of POMPEY'S STATUE, which wasdrenched with the martyr's blood.
Great tumult and commotion followed; and, in their alarm, most of theSenators fled. It was two days before the Senate met, the conspiratorsmeanwhile having taken refuge in the Capitol. Public sentiment wasagainst them. Many of Caesar's old soldiers were in the city, and manymore were flocking there from all directions. The funeral oration ofMark Antony over the remains produced a deep impression upon thecrowd. They became so excited when the speaker removed the dead man'stoga, and disclosed his wounds, that, instead of allowing the body tobe carried to the Campus Martius for burial, they raised a funeralpile in the Forum, and there burned it. The crowd then dispersed introops, broke into and destroyed the houses of the conspirators.Brutus and Cassius fled from the city for their lives, followed by theother murderers.
As a general Caesar was probably superior to all others, exceptingpossibly Hannibal. He was especially remarkable for the fertility ofhis resources. It has been said that Napoleon taught his enemies howto conquer him; but Caesar's enemies never learned how to conquer him,because he had not a mere system of tactics, but a new stratagem forevery emergency. He was, however, not only a great general, but a pre-eminent statesman, and second only to Cicero in eloquence. As ahistorian, he wrote in a style that was clear, vigorous, and alsosimple. Most of his writings are lost; but of those that remain Cicerosaid that fools might try to improve on them, but no wise man wouldattempt it.
CHAPTER XXXV.
Caesar in his will had appointed GAIUS OCTAVIUS, the grandson of hissister Julia, heir to three fourths of his property; and his otherrelatives were to have the remaining fourth.
Young Octavius was in his nineteenth year when Caesar was murdered. Hewent at once to Rome to claim his inheritance. Caesar's widow,Calpurnia, had intrusted to Mark Antony all the money in the house,--alarge sum,--and had also delivered to his care all the Dictator'swritings and memoranda.
Octavius was cool and sagacious, without passion or affection, andshowed himself a match for all his opponents. His arrival at Rome wasdisagreeable to Antony, who was unwilling to surrender Caesar'sproperty. He claimed that he had already expended it for publicpurposes. Octavius at once paid the dead Dictator's legacies, mostlyout of his own fortune, thus making himself very popular among thepeople. He then joined the party of the Senate, and during the autumnand winter of 44 was its chief champion. He was helped by the eloquentCicero, who was delivering against Antony his famous fourteenPHILIPPICS,--so called from their resemblance to the great orations ofDemosthenes against Philip.
During the spring of 43 Octavius advanced against Antony, who was atMutina (Modena), and defeated him in two battles. He was thenappointed Consul, and, finding it for his interest, he deserted theSenate, made friends with Antony, and with him and Lepidus formed (27November, 43) the SECOND TRIUMVIRATE, assuming full authority togovern and reorganize the state, and to hold office for five years.
The provinces were divided as follows: Lepidus was to have Spain andGallia Narbonensis; Antony, the rest of Gaul beyond the Alps andGallia Cisalpína; Octavius, Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. A bloodyprescription followed. Among its victims were CICERO, who wassurrendered to please Antony, 300 Senators, and 2,000 Equites.
The Triumvirs could now concentrate their energies upon the East,whither BRUTUS and CASSIUS, the murderers of Caesar, had fled. Thesetwo had organized in the provinces of the East an army amounting to80,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry. They were employed in plunderingvarious towns of Asia Minor, and finally, in the spring of 42,assembled their forces at Sardis preparatory to an invasion of Europe.After marching through Thrace they entered Macedonia, and found Antonyand Octavius opposed to them at PHILIPPI, with an army of 120,000troops. There were two battles at Philippi in November, 42. In thefirst, Brutus defeated Octavius; but Cassius was defeated by Antony,and, unaware of his colleague's victory, committed suicide. In thesecond battle, three weeks later, Brutus was defeated by the unitedarmies of the Triumvirs, and, following the example of Cassius, put anend to his life. With Brutus fell the Republic. The absoluteascendency of individuals, which is monarchy, was then established.
The immediate result of Philippi was a fresh arrangement of the Romanworld among the Triumvirs. Antony preferred the East, Octavius tookItaly and Spain, and Africa fell to Lepidus.
Octavius tried to establish order in Italy, but many obstacles were tobe overcome. Sextus Pompeius, who had escaped from Munda, was incommand of a strong naval force. He controlled a large part of theMediterranean, and, by waylaying the corn ships bound for Rome,exposed the city to great danger from famine. Octavius was obliged toraise a fleet and meet this danger. At first he was defeated byPompey, but later, in 36, in the great sea fight off NAULOCHUS inSicily, the rebel was overcome. He fled to Asia with a few followers,but was taken prisoner at Milétus by one of the lieutenants of Antony,and put to death.
Lepidus now claimed Sicily as a part of his province, and an equalshare in the government of the Roman world with the other Triumvirs.But his soldiers were induced to desert him, and he was obliged tosurrender to Octavius. His life was spared, but he was deprived of hispower and provinces. He lived twenty years longer (until 13), butceased to be a factor in public affairs. Having rid themselves of allrivals, Octavius and Antony redivided the Empire, the former takingthe West, the latter the East.
Antony now repaired to Alexandría, and surrendered himself to thefascinations of the famous Cleopátra. He assumed the habits and dressof an Eastern monarch, and by his senseless follies disgusted hisfriends and supporters. He resigned himself to luxury and idleness,and finally divorced himself from his wife Octavia, sister ofOctavius, disregarding his good name and the wishes of his friends.Thus gradually he became more and more estranged from Octavius, untilfinally the rupture resulted in open war.
The contest was decided by the naval battle off Cape Actium, inGreece, September 2, 31. Antony had collected from all parts of theEast a large army, in addition to his fleet, which was supported bythat of Cleopátra. He wished to decide the contest on land; butCleopátra insisted that they should fight by sea. The fleet ofOctavius was commanded by Agrippa, who had been in command at the sea-fight off Naulochus. The battle lasted a long time, and was stillundecided, when Cleopátra hoisted sail and with her sixty vesselshastened to leave the line. Antony at once followed her. The battle,however, continued until his remaining fleet was destroyed, and hisarmy, after a few days' hesitation, surrendered.
Octavius did not follow Antony for about a year. He passed the winterin Samos, sending Agrippa to Italy with the veterans. His time wasoccupied in restoring order in Greece and Asia, in raising money tosatisfy the demands of his troops, and in founding new colonies. Atlength he turned his attention to Egypt. After capturing Pelusium, thekey of the country, he marched upon Alexandría. Antony, despairing ofsuccess, committed suicide, expiring in the arms of Cleopátra. Thequeen, disdaining to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, followed hisexample, and was found dead on her couch, in royal attire, with hertwo faithful attendants also dead at her feet.
Octavius was now sole ruler of Rome. Before returning to the capitalto celebrate his triumphs, he organized Egypt as a province, settleddisputes in Judaea, and arranged matters in Syria and Asia Minor. Hearrived at Rome (August 29), and enjoyed three magnificent triumphs.The gates of the temple of JANUS--which were open in time of war, andhad been closed but twice before, once during Numa's reign, and oncebetween the First and Second Punic Wars--were closed, and Rome was atpeace with all the world.
CICERO'S public life covered a period of nearly forty years, from thedictatorship of Sulla to the fall of the Republic. Although endowed bynature with great talents, he was always under the sway of the moment,and therefore little qualified to be a statesman; yet he had notsufficient self-knowledge to see it. Hence the attempts he made toplay a part in politics served only to lay bare his utter weakness.Thus it happened that he was used and then pushed aside, attracted andrepelled, deceived by the weakness of his friends and the strength ofhis adversaries; and at last threatened by both the parties betweenwhich he tried to steer his course.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
After enjoying his triple triumph, Octavius should, according to theprecedents of the Republic, have given up the title of IMPERATOR; buthe allowed the Senate, which was only too glad to flatter him, to givehim that name for ten years,--a period which was repeatedly renewed.In this way he became permanent commander of the national forces. Nextthe Imperator (Emperor) caused himself to be invested with theauthority of Censor. This enabled him to revise the list of Senators,and to restore to this body something of its ancient respectability.By judicious pruning he reduced the number to six hundred, andrequired a property qualification for membership. He placed himself atits head as PRINCEPS (prince), a title which implied that the Emperorwas the first citizen, without claiming any rights of royalty,thus lulling any suspicions of the populace.
The Senate still decided the most important questions. It hadjurisdiction in criminal matters, and the right of ratifying new laws.It was convened three times each month; viz. on the 1st, 5th (or 7th),and 13th (or 15th). The Emperor voted with the other Senators.
The Senate next conferred upon Octavius the title of AUGUSTUS; then itmade him Proconsul (an officer with the right to govern provinces),and Consul, with the privilege of having twelve lictors, and ofsitting in the curule chair between the two Consuls. The regularConsuls, of course, were only too ready to follow his wishes. Finally,he was made Pontifex Maximus, the head of the Roman religion.
Augustus was now supreme ruler in fact, if not in name. The Senate waspractically subject to his will. The Assemblies gradually lost allvoice in the government, and finally disappeared entirely. The Senate,however, continued nominally to act until the time of Diocletian (284
As Augustus had exclusive command of the armies, he chose to govern asProconsul those provinces which required military forces. He himselfresided at the capital, and sent deputies (legati) to overseethem. The other provinces, called Senatorial, were governed byProconsuls appointed by the Senate. These were at this time Sicily,Africa, Achaia (Greece), Macedonia, Asia (Minor), Hispania Ulterior,and Gallia Narbonensis.
The city government now included all Italy. In this Augustus wasassisted by three Praefects; one in charge of the corn supplies,a second in charge of the city proper, and a third in charge of his bodyguard of nine thousand men, called the PRAETORIAN GUARD. ThesePraefects soon overshadowed all the regular magistrates, and throughthem Augustus reigned supreme.
The Roman Empire at this time included all the countries bordering onthe Mediterranean, extending east to the Parthian kingdom (the UpperEuphrátes) and the Arabian Desert, south to the Desert of Sahara, andwest to the Atlantic Ocean. On the north the boundary was unsettled,and subject to inroads of barbarians. In the early part of his reignAugustus joined to the Empire a new province, Moesia, comprising theterritory along the Lower Danube, and making nineteen in all.
Augustus next devoted himself to the task of conquering the territorybetween the Lower Rhine and Moesia, which was occupied by hardymountaineers whose resistance was likely to be stubborn. His two step-sons, Drusus and Tiberius, were in charge of this important work. Theywere so successful as to acquire enough territory to form two newprovinces, Rhaetia and Noricum (15 B.C.).
Tiberius also conquered the valley of the Save, and made it theprovince of Pannonia (Western Hungary), 10 B.C.
Drusus, while his brother Tiberius was engaged in Pannonia, made acampaign against the Germans near the Rhine. He had nearly finishedthe conquest of Germany from the Rhine to the Elbe, when he died (9,B.C.), and was succeeded by his brother Tiberius, who completed hiswork.
Drusus received the cognomen of Germanicus for his conquests inGermany. His wife was Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, by whom he hadtwo sons, Germanicus and Claudius, the latter of whom was afterwardsEmperor.
In 7 A.D. Lucius Varus was appointed governor of the newly acquiredterritory in Germany. When he endeavored to subject these recentlyconquered peoples to the forms of the Roman provincial government,they rose in rebellion under the lead of Arminius (Herman), a powerfulchief.
Varus was allured from his fortified camp (9 A.D.) into a pass in theTeutoberger Forests, where he was suddenly attacked on all sides.After three days' fighting, he succeeded with great loss in making hisway through the pass into the open plain, but was there met by theenemy in full force, and his troops were annihilated. In despair Varuskilled himself. Germany was practically lost and the Rhine becameagain the Roman frontier. This defeat caused a great stir at Rome, andthe Emperor is said to have exclaimed in his sorrow, "Varus, Varus,give me back my legions!"
Five years later (14 A.D.) Augustus died. In his last moments heasked his friends if he had not played well his part in the comedy oflife.
Although married three times, the Emperor had but one child, JULIA (39B.C.--14 A.D.), by his second wife, Scribonia. She was noted for herbeauty and talents, but infamous for her intrigues. She was marriedthree times; first, to Marcellus, her cousin; secondly, to Agrippa, bywhom she had five children; and thirdly, to the Emperor Tiberius. Shewas banished on account of her conduct, and died in want.
OCTAVIA, the sister of Augustus, was noted for her beauty andaccomplishments, as well as for the nobility of her character. Her sonMARCELLUS was adopted by his uncle, but died young (23 B. C.). Thefamous lines of Virgil upon this promising young man (Aeneid VI. 869-887) were read before the Emperor and his sister, moving them totears, and winning for the author a munificent reward.
After the death of her first husband, Octavia was married to MarkAntony, by whom she had two daughters, through whom she was theancestress of three Emperors, CLAUDIUS, CALIGULA, and NERO.
AGRIPPA (63-12), an eminent general and statesman, was a warm friendand counsellor of Augustus. At the battle of Actium he commanded thefleet of Octavius. He married Julia, the only daughter of the Emperor,and had three sons, two of whom were adopted by Augustus, but diedbefore him; the third was murdered by Tiberius.
Augustus died at the age of seventy-six. He was frugal and correct inhis personal habits, quick and shrewd in his dealings with men, boldand ambitious in the affairs of state. His greatness consisted ratherin the ability to abstain from abusing the advantages presented byfortune, than in the genius which moulds the current of affairs to thewill. His success depended on the temper of the people and thepeculiar circumstances of the time. His clearest title to greatness isfound in the fact that he compelled eighty millions of people to livein peace for more than forty years, He made the world to centre on onewill, and the horrors which mark the reigns of his successors were thelegitimate result of the irresponsible sovereignty he established. Heformed his empire for the present, to the utter ignoring of thefuture. Thus it would seem that the part he played was that of ashrewd politician, rather than that of a wise statesman.
| CHAPTER XXXVII. |
In speaking of Augustus, we must take into account the writers whosenames have given to his its brightest lustre, and have made theAUGUSTAN AGE a synonym for excellence in culture, art, and government.Virgil, Ovid, Horace, Livy, and a host of others, have given his reigna brilliancy unmatched in time, which is rather enhanced thandiminished by the fame of Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust, who preceded,and that of Tacitus, Seneca, and others, who followed; for they belongto an epoch in which Augustus stands the central figure in all whichpertains to the arts of peace.
In literature the name of VIRGIL stands first in the Augustan age.Born at Andes, near Mantua, 15 October, 70, he was educated at Cremonaand Mediolánum. After completing his education he retired to hispaternal estate. In the division of land among the soldiers after thebattle of Philippi (42), he was deprived of his property, which wassubsequently restored to him by Augustus. He lived partly at Rome,partly in Campania. His health was never good, and he died in hisfifty-second year (22 September, 19 B. C.).
Virgil had neither original nor creative genius. Though he mainlyimitated Greek poetry, his style is graceful and eloquent, his toneinspiring and elevating.
In disposition he was childlike, innocent, and amiable,--a good son, afaithful friend, honest, and full of devotion to persons and idealinterests. He was not, however, fitted to grapple with the tasks anddifficulties of practical life.
In his fortunes and friends he was a happy man. Munificent patronagegave him ample means of enjoyment and leisure; and he had thefriendship of all the most accomplished men of his day, among whom wasHorace, who entertained a strong affection for him. His fame, whichwas established in his lifetime, was cherished after his death as aninheritance in which every Roman had a share; and his works becameschool-books even before the death of Augustus, and have continuedsuch ever since.
HORACE (65-8 B. C.) was born at Venusia, but received his education atRome and Athens. He was present at the battle of Philippi (42), wherehe fought as Tribune under Brutus. His first writings were hisSatires. These he read to his friends, and their merit was atonce recognized. His great patron was MAECÉNAS, who introduced him tothe Emperor, and gave him a fine country seat near Tivoli, among theSabine Mountains. He died the same year as his patron, and was buriedbeside him at the Esquiline Gate.
The poems of Horace give us a picture of refined and educated life inthe Rome of his time. They are unsurpassed in gracefulness andfelicity of thought. Filled with truisms, they were for centuries readand quoted more than those of any other ancient writer.
OVID (43 B. C.-18 A. D.), a native of Sulmo, is far inferior to Virgiland Horace as a poet, but ranks high on account of his great gift fornarration.
"Of the Latin poets he stands perhaps nearest to modern civilization,partly on account of his fresh and vivid sense of the beauties ofnature, and partly because his subject is love. His representations ofthis passion are graceful, and strikingly true. He also excelled otherpoets in the perfect elegance of his form, especially in the characterand rhythm of his verses." He spent his last days in exile, banishedby Augustus for some reason now unknown. Some of his most pleasingverses were written during this period.
One of the most noted men of the Augustan age was MAECÉNAS, the warmfriend and adviser of Augustus. He was a constant patron of theliterature and art of his generation. He was very wealthy, and hismagnificent house was the centre of literary society in Rome, Hehelped both Virgil and Horace in a substantial manner, and the latteris constantly referring to him in his poetry. He died (8 B. C.)childless, and left his fortune to Augustus.
The prose writers who lived at this period were Livy, Sallust, andNepos.
LIVY is the best of these. He was a native of Patavium (Padua), a manof rhetorical training, who spent most of his time in Rome. Thehistorical value of his work cannot be overestimated, on account ofthe scarcity, and in many cases the utter lack, of other historicaldocuments on the times of which he wrote. His style is spirited, andalways interesting. His accuracy, however, is not to be compared withthat of Caesar. Only thirty-five out of the one hundred and forty-twobooks that he wrote are preserved.
NEPOS was a prolific writer, but only a portion of one of his works,De Viris Illustribus, has come down to us; it is neitheraccurate nor interesting, and of little value.
SALLUST left two historical productions, one on the conspiracy ofCatiline, the other on the war with Jugurtha. His style is rhetorical.He excels in delineating character, but he is often so concise as tobe obscure.
GAIUS ASINIUS POLLIO was a statesman and orator of marked attainmentsof this time. He was strongly attached to the old republicaninstitutions, a man of great independence of character, and a poet ofno mean merit, as his contemporaries testify. Unfortunately, none ofhis writings are preserved.
The age of Augustus is also noted for the architectural improvementsin Rome. Augustus is said to have found a city of stone, and left oneof marble. He himself built twelve temples, and repaired eighty-twothat had fallen into decay. The FORUM was beautified by five halls ofjustice (Basilicae), which were erected around its borders. Themost famous of these was the BASILICA JULIA, begun by Julius Caesarand finished by Augustus. Public squares were planned and begun northof the great Forum, the finest of which was the FORUM OF TRAJAN,finished by the Emperor of that name.
The finest building outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, wasthe PANTHEON, built by Agrippa, and now used as a Christian church.Here are buried many distinguished men. Near by, Augustus erected amausoleum for himself. Here too was a theatre, built by Pompey,--thefirst stone theatre of Rome.
| CHAPTER XXXVIII. |
Augustus was succeeded by TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO CAESAR (born 42 B.
Tiberius had great military talent. He was a severe disciplinarian,and commanded the full confidence of his soldiers. As commander inCantabria, Armenia, Rhaetia, Dalmatia, and Germany, he conducted hiscampaigns with success, and honor to himself. Returning to Rome in 7
Augustus, not relishing the changes in his character, sent him toRhodes, where he lived seven years in retirement. Through his mother'sinfluence, however, he was recalled in 2 A. D., and was afterwardsappointed the Emperor's successor. He ascended the throne at theage of fifty-six. A silent man, "all his feelings, desires, andambitions were locked behind an impenetrable barrier." He is said butonce to have taken counsel with his officers. He was a master ofdissimulation, and on this account an object of dislike and suspicion.But until his later years, his intellect was clear and far-seeing,penetrating all disguises.
Throughout his reign Tiberius strove to do his duty to the Empire atlarge, and maintained with great care the constitutional forms whichhad been established by Augustus. Only two changes of importance weremade. First, the IMPERIAL GUARD, hitherto seen in the city only insmall bodies, was permanently encamped in full force close to thewalls. By this course the danger of riots was much lessened. Secondly,the old COMITIAS were practically abolished. But the Senate wastreated with great deference.
Tiberius expended great care on the provinces. His favorite maxim was,that a good shepherd should shear, and not flay, his sheep. Soldiers,governors, and officials of all kinds were kept in a wholesome dreadof punishment, if they oppressed those under them. Strict economy inpublic expenses kept the taxes down. Commerce was cherished, and hisreign on the whole was one of prosperity for the Empire.
Tiberius was noted especially for prosecutions for MAJESTAS, on theslightest pretext. Majestas nearly corresponds to treason; butit is more comprehensive. One of the offences included in the word waseffecting, aiding in, or planning the death of a magistrate, or of onewho had the imperium or potestas. Tiberius stretched theapplication of this offence even to words or conduct which could inany way be considered dangerous to the Emperor. A hateful class ofinformers (delatores) sprung up, and the lives of all were renderedunsafe. The dark side of this ruler's character is made speciallyprominent by ancient historians; but their statements are beginning tobe taken with much allowance.
After a reign of twenty-three years, Tiberius died, either in afainting fit or from violence, at the age of seventy-nine.
LIVIA, the mother of Tiberius, deserves more than a passing notice.She exercised almost a boundless influence on her husband, Augustus.She had great ambition, and was very cruel and unscrupulous. Shemanaged to ruin, one after another, the large circle of relatives ofAugustus, until finally the aged Emperor found himself alone in thepalace with Livia and her son, Tiberius. All Rome execrated theEmpress, and her son feared and hated her. She survived Augustusfifteen years, and died in 29. Tiberius refused to visit her on herdeath-bed, and was not present at her funeral.
SEJÁNUS was the commander of the Praetorian Guard of Tiberius. He wastrusted fully by the Emperor, but proved to be a deep-dyed rascal. Hepersuaded Livilla, the daughter-in-law of the Emperor, to poison herhusband, the heir apparent, and then he divorced his own wife to marryher. He so maligned Agrippína, the widow of Germanicus and daughter ofAgrippa and Julia, that Tiberius banished her, with her sons Nero andDrusus. In 26 he induced the Emperor to retire to the island ofCapreae, and he himself became the real master of Rome.
Tiberius at last finding out his true character, Sejánus was arrestedand executed in 31. His body was dragged through the streets, torn inpieces by the mob, and thrown into the Tiber.
Tiberius having left no son, the Senate recognized Gaius Caesar, sonof Germanicus and Agrippína, grandson of Julia, and great-grandson ofAugustus, as Emperor. He is better known as CALIGULA,--a nicknamegiven him by the soldiers from the buskins he wore. He was twenty-fiveyears of age when he began to reign, of weak constitution, and subjectto fits. After squandering his own wealth, he killed rich citizens,and confiscated their property. He seemed to revel in bloodshed, andis said to have expressed a wish that the Roman people had but oneneck, that he might slay them all at a blow. He was passionately fondof adulation, and often repaired to the Capitoline temple in the guiseof a god, and demanded worship. Four years of such a tyrant wasenough. He was murdered by a Tribune of his Praetorian Guard.
A strong party was now in favor of returning to a republican form ofgovernment; but while the Senate was considering this question, thePraetorian Guard settled it by proclaiming CLAUDIUS Emperor.
Claudius was the uncle of Caligula and the nephew of Tiberius. He wasa man of learning and good parts, but a glutton, and the slave of histwo wives, who were both bad women. His first wife, MESSALÍNA, was sonotorious that her name has became almost a synonym for wickedness.His second wife, his niece AGRIPPÍNA, sister of Caligula, was nearlyas bad. This woman had by her former husband, Domitius, a son, whomshe induced the Emperor to adopt under the name of NERO. The faithlesswife then caused her husband to be poisoned, and her son to beproclaimed Emperor.
At Rome the rule of Claudius was mild, and on the whole beneficial. Inthe government of the provinces he was rigorous and severe. Heundertook the CONQUEST OF BRITAIN, and in a campaign of sixteen dayshe laid the foundation of its final subjugation, which occurred aboutforty years later, under the noted general AGRICOLA: It remained aRoman province for four hundred years, but the people neverassimilated Roman customs, as did the Gauls, and when the Romangarrisons were withdrawn, they quickly returned to their formercondition. However, many remains of Roman buildings in the island showthat it was for the time well under subjection.
The public works of Claudius were on a grand scale. He constructed anew harbor at the mouth of the Tiber, and built the great aqueductcalled the AQUA CLAUDIA, the ruined arches of which can be seen tothis day. He also reclaimed for agriculture a large tract of land bydraining the Fucine Lake.
NERO was but sixteen years old when he began to reign. For two orthree years he was under the influence of his tutor, SENECA, theauthor, and BURRHUS, the Praefect of the Praetorian Guard, and hisgovernment was during this period the most respectable of any sincethe time of Augustus. His masters kept the young Emperor amused, andremoved from the cares of state. But he soon became infatuated with anunscrupulous woman, POPPAEA SABÍNA, for whom he neglected and finallykilled his wife, Octavia.
It would be useless to follow in detail the crimes of Nero from thistime. A freedman, TIGELLÍNUS, became his adviser, and was the realruler of the Empire. He encouraged his master in all his vices andwickedness. Poppaea died from a kick administered by Nero in anger;Burrhus was disposed of; Agrippína, and Britannicus, the true heir tothe throne, were murdered. The wealthy were plundered, and thefeelings of his subjects outraged in every conceivable manner. TheEmperor appeared in public, contending first as a musician, andafterwards in the sports of the circus.
The great fire of 18 July, 64, which destroyed a large part of thecity, was ascribed to him, but without sufficient evidence; and thestories of his conduct during the conflagration are doubtless purefictions. It was necessary, however, to fix the guilt on some one; sothe CHRISTIANS, then a small sect, made up chiefly of the poorerpeople, were accused of the crime, and persecuted without mercy. Theywere often enclosed in fagots covered with pitch, and burned alive.
In rebuilding Rome, Nero took every precaution against the recurrenceof a conflagration. Broad regular streets replaced the narrow windingalleys. The new houses were limited in height, built partly of hardstone, and protected by open spaces and colonnades. The water supplywas also carefully regulated.
In addition to rebuilding the city, Nero gratified his love for themagnificent by erecting a splendid palace, called the GOLDEN HOUSE.Its walls were adorned with gold, precious stones, and masterpieces ofart from Greece. The grounds around were marvellous in their meadows,lakes, groves, and distant views. In front was a colossal statue ofNero himself, one hundred and ten feet high.
Conspiracies having been formed in which Seneca and Lucan wereimplicated, both men were ordered to take their own lives. Nero's lifeafter this became still more infamous. In a tour made in Greece, heconducted himself so scandalously that even Roman morals were shocked,and Roman patience could endure him no longer. The Governor of HitherSpain, GALBA, proclaimed himself Emperor, and marched upon Rome.Verginius, the Governor of Upper Germany, also lent his aid to theinsurrection. The Senate proclaimed Nero a public enemy, and condemnedhim to death. He fled from the city and put an end to his life, June9, 68, just in time to escape capture. His statues were broken down,his name everywhere erased, and his Golden House demolished. With himended the Claudian line of Emperors.
LUCIUS ANNAEUS SENECA (8 B. C.-65 A. D.) was born at Corduba in Spain,of a Spanish Roman family, and was educated at Rome. His father was ateacher of rhetoric, a man of wealth and literary attainments. Senecabegan to practise at the bar at Rome, and was gaining considerablereputation, when in 41 he was banished to Corsica. Eight years laterhe was recalled to be tutor of the young Nero, then eleven years old.He was Consul in 57, and during the first years of Nero's reign heshared the administration of affairs with the worthy Burrhus. Hisinfluence over Nero, while it lasted, was salutary, though oftenmaintained by doubtful means. In course of time Nero began to dislikehim, and when Burrhus died his fate was sealed. By the Emperor'scommand he committed suicide. Opening the veins in his feet and arms,he discoursed with his friends on the brevity of life till deathensued.
Seneca is the most eminent of the writers of his age. He wrote moralessays, philosophical letters, physical treatises, and tragedies. Ofthe last, the best are HERCULES FURENS, PHAEDRA, and MEDEA.
GALBA entered the city as a conqueror, without much trouble, but onaccount of his parsimony and austerity he soon became unpopular, andwas murdered by his mutinous soldiers fifteen days after he reachedRome. He belonged to an old patrician family, and his overthrow wassincerely regretted by the better element in the city.
OTHO, the first husband of Poppaea, and the leader in the insurrectionagainst Galba, was now declared Emperor. No sooner did the news of hisaccession reach Gaul than VITELLIUS, a general of the army of theRhine, revolted. Otho marched against the rebels, was defeated, andcommitted suicide after a reign of three months.
VITELLIUS had been a good soldier, but as a ruler he was weak andincapable. He was killed after a reign of less than a year, duringwhich he had distinguished himself by gluttony and vulgar sensuality.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
The East now made a claim for the Emperor, and on July 1, 69, thesoldiers who were engaged in war against the revolted Jews in Judaeaproclaimed as Emperor their commander, TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIÁNUS. Heleft the conduct of the war in charge of his son Titus, and arrived atRome in 70. Here he overthrew and put to death Vitellius. In thecourse of this struggle the Capitol was burned. This he restored,rebuilding also a large part of the city.
In his own life Vespasian was simple, putting to shame the luxury andextravagance of the nobles, and causing a marked improvement in thegeneral tone of society. He removed from the Senate many impropermembers, replacing them by able men, among whom was AGRICOLA. In 70 heput down a formidable rebellion in Gaul; and when his son Titusreturned from the capture of Jerusalem, [Footnote: Jerusalem was takenin 70, after a siege of several months, the horrors of which have beengraphically detailed by the Jewish historian Joséphus, who was presentin the army of Titus. The city was destroyed, and the inhabitants soldinto slavery.] they enjoyed a joint triumph. The Temple of Janus wasclosed, and peace prevailed during the remainder of his reign.
Much money was spent on public works, and in beautifying the city. Anew Forum was built, a Temple of Peace, public baths, and the famousCOLOSSÉUM was begun, receiving its name from the Colossus, a statue ofNero, which had stood near by.
On the whole, Vespasian was active and prudent in public affairs,frugal and virtuous in private life. The decade of his reign wasmarked by peace and general prosperity.
One of the ablest men of this age was AGRICOLA (37-93). Born at ForumJulii in Gaul, he was made Governor of Aquitania by Vespasian in 73.Four years later he was Consul, and the next year was sent to Britain,which he conquered, and governed with marked ability and moderation,increasing the prosperity of the people and advancing theircivilization. He remained in Britain until 85, when he was recalled.His life was written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus.
Vespasian was succeeded by his son TITUS, who emulated the virtues ofhis father. He finished the Colosséum, begun by Vespasian, and built atriumphal arch to commemorate his victories over the Jews. This arch,called the ARCH OF TITUS, was built on the highest part of the ViaSacra, and on its walls was carved a representation of the sacredcandlestick of the Jewish temple, which can still be seen.
It was during this reign that HERCULANEUM and POMPEII were destroyedby an eruption of Vesuvius. In this eruption perished PLINY THE ELDER,the most noted writer of his day. His work on Natural History,the only one of his writings that is preserved, shows that he was atrue student. His passion for investigation led him to approach toonear the volcano, and caused his death.
DOMITIAN was the opposite of his brother Titus,--cruel, passionate,and extravagant. He was murdered after a reign of fifteen years,during which he earned the hatred and contempt of his subjects by hiscrimes and inconsistencies.
In his foreign policy Domitian showed considerable ability. He addedto the Empire that part of Germany which corresponds to modern Badenand Wirtemberg, and built a line of fortifications from Mentz on theRhine to Ratisbon on the Danube.
With him ended the line of the FLAVIAN EMPERORS, and he was also thelast of the so called TWELVE CAESARS, a name given them by thehistorian Suetonius.
CHAPTER XL.
NERVA was appointed by the Senate to succeed Domitian, and was thefirst Emperor who did not owe his advancement to military force orinfluence. He associated with himself MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS, then incommand of the army on the Rhine. Nerva ruled only sixteen months; butduring that time he restored tranquillity among the people, conferringhappiness and prosperity upon every class.
Nerva was succeeded by TRAJAN, whose character has its surest guarantyin the love and veneration of his subjects; and it is said that, longafterwards, the highest praise that could be bestowed on a ruler wasthat he was "more fortunate than Augustus, and better than Trajan."Trajan was a soldier, and, if he lacked the refinements of a peacefullife, he was nevertheless a wise and firm master.
He added to the Empire Dacia, the country included between the Danubeand the Theiss, the Carpathians and the Pruth. This territory becameso thoroughly Romanized that the language of its inhabitants to-day isfounded on that of their conquerors nearly eighteen centuries ago. Itwas in honor of this campaign into Dacia that the famous COLUMN OFTRAJAN, which still remains, was erected.
Trajan also annexed to the Empire Arabia Petraea, which afforded animportant route between Egypt and Syria. His invasion of Parthia,however, resulted in no permanent advantage.
During the reign of Trajan the Roman Empire REACHED THE SUMMIT OF ITSPOWER; but the first signs of decay were beginning to be seen in thefinancial distress of all Italy, and the decline of the freepeasantry, until in the next century they were reduced to a conditionof practical serfdom.
The literature of Trajan's reign was second only to that of theAugustan age. His time has often been called the SILVER AGE. Its prosewriters were, however, unlike those of the Augustan age, far superiorto its poets. The most famous prose writers were TACITUS, PLINY THEYOUNGER, and QUINTILIAN.
The poets of this period were JUVENAL, PERSIUS, MARTIAL, LUCAN, andSTATIUS, of whom the last two were of an inferior order.
Trajan was succeeded by his cousin's son, HADRIAN, a native of Spain.One of the first acts of Hadrian was to relinquish the recentconquests of Trajan, and to restore the old boundaries of the Empire.The reasons for this were that they had reached the utmost limitswhich could lend strength to the power of Rome, or be held insubjection without constant and expensive military operations. Thepeople occupying the new conquests were hardy and warlike, scatteredover a country easy of defence, and certain to strive constantlyagainst a foreign yoke.
Hadrian displayed constant activity in travelling over the Empire, tooverlook personally its administration and protection. He visitedBritain, where he crushed the inroads of the Caledonians and built afortified line of works, known as the PICTS' WALL, extending from seato sea. The remains of this great work are still to be seen,corresponding nearly to the modern boundary between England andScotland. He also visited the East, where the Jews were making serioustrouble, and completed their overthrow.
On his return to the city, the Emperor devoted himself to itsadornment. Several of his works, more or less complete, still remain.The most famous of these is the MAUSOLÉUM (Tomb) OF HADRIAN, now knownas the Castle of San Angelo.
Hadrian was afflicted with bad health, suffering much from diseasesfrom which he could find no relief. On account of this, and to securea proper succession, he associated with himself in the governmentTITUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS, and required him to adopt Marcus AnniusVerus and Lucius Verus. In 138, soon after this arrangement was made,Hadrian died, leaving the Empire to Titus.
TITUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS PIUS (138-161).
ANTONÍNUS, a native of Gaul, was fifty-two years old when he succeededto the throne. The cognomen PIUS was conferred upon him by the Senateon account of the affectionate respect which he had shown for Hadrian.He was a man of noble appearance, firm and prudent, and under him theaffairs of state moved smoothly.
MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS (161-180).
On the death of Antonínus, Marcus Annius Verus succeeded him under thetitle of Marcus Aurelius Antonínus.
The Moors made an invasion into Spain; the barbarians broke into Gaul;the army in Britain attempted to set up another Emperor; and theParthians in the East were in an uneasy state. The Eastern war,however, ended favorably, and the Parthian king purchased peace byceding Mesopotamia to Rome. But the returning army brought with it apestilence, which spread devastation throughout the West. TheChristians were charged with being the cause of the plague, and werecruelly persecuted. Among the victims were Justin Martyr at Rome, andPolycarp at Smyrna.
The death of Lucius Verus in 168 released Aurelius from a colleaguewho attracted attention only by his unfitness for his position. TheEmperor was thus relieved of embarrassments which might well havebecome his greatest danger. The remainder of his reign, however, wasscarcely less unhappy.
The dangers from the troublesome barbarians grew greater and greater.Rome had now passed the age of conquest, and began to show inabilityeven to defend what she had acquired. For fourteen years Aurelius wasengaged on the frontiers fighting these barbarians, and endeavoring tocheck their advance. He died at Vienna while thus occupied, in thefifty-ninth year of his life (180).
Peace was shortly afterwards made with the barbarians, a peace boughtwith money; an example often followed in later times, when Rome lackedthe strength and courage to enforce her wishes by force of arms.
Marcus Aurelius was the PHILOSOPHER of the Empire. His tastes werequiet; he was unassuming, and intent on the good of the people. Hisfaults were amiable weaknesses; his virtues, those of a hero. HisMeditations have made him known as an author of fine tastes andthoughts. With him ended the line of the GOOD EMPERORS. After hisdeath, Rome's prosperity and power began rapidly to wane.
The CHRISTIANS, who were gradually increasing in numbers, werepersecuted at different times throughout the Empire. One ground forthese persecutions was that it was a crime against the state to refuseto worship the gods of the Romans under whom the Empire hadflourished. It was also the custom to burn incense in front of theEmperor's statue, as an act of adoration. The Christians not onlyrefused homage to the Roman gods, but denounced the burning of incenseas sacrilegious. AURELIUS gave his sanction to the most generalpersecution this sect had yet suffered. The last combined effort tosuppress them was under DIOCLETIAN, in 284, but it ended with theEDICT OF MILAN in 312, which famous decree gave the imperial licenseto the religion of Christ.
CHAPTER XLI.
On the death of Aurelius, his son, Commodus, hastened to Rome, and wasreceived by both the Senate and army without opposition. His characterwas the opposite of that of his good father. In ferocity andvindictiveness he was almost unequalled, even among the Emperors ofunhappy Rome. By means of informers, who were well paid, he ridhimself of the best members of the Senate. His government became socorrupt, he himself so notorious in crime, that he was unendurable.His proudest boasts were of his triumphs in the amphitheatre, and ofhis ability to kill a hundred lions with as many arrows. After a reignof twelve years his servants rid the Empire of his presence.
PERTINAX, the Praefect of the city, an old and experienced Senator,followed Commodus. His reign of three months was well meant, but as itwas not supported by the military it was of no effect. His attemptedreforms were stopped by his murder.
The Praetorians now offered the crown to the highest bidder, whoproved to be DIDIUS JULIÁNUS, a wealthy Senator. He paid about athousand dollars to each soldier of the Guard, twelve thousand innumber. After enjoying the costly honor two months he was deposed andexecuted.
In the mean time several soldiers had been declared Emperor by theirrespective armies. Among them was SEPTIMIUS SEVÉRUS, an African,belonging to the army of the Danube.
Sevérus was an able soldier. He disarmed the Praetorians, banishedthem from Rome, and filled their place with fifty thousandlegionaries, who acted as his body guard. The person whom he placed incommand of this guard was made to rank next to himself, withlegislative, judicial, and financial powers. The Senate he reduced toa nonentity.
After securing the capital, Sevérus carried on a campaign against theParthians, and was victorious over the rulers of Mesopotamia andArabia. In 203 he erected, in commemoration of these victories, amagnificent arch, which still stands at the head of the Forum. He diedat Eboracum (York), in Britain, while making preparations for acampaign against the Caledonians.
Sevérus left two sons, both of whom he had associated with himself inthe government. No sooner was he dead than they quarrelled, and theelder, CARACALLA, murdered the other with his own hand in the presenceof their mother.
Caracalla was blood-thirsty and cruel. After a short reign (211-216)he was murdered by one of his soldiers. By him were begun the famousbaths which bore his name, and of which extensive remains still exist.Caracalla was succeeded by MACRÍNUS, who reigned but one year, and wasfollowed by HELIOGABALUS (218-222), a priest of the sun, a trueOriental, with but few virtues. His end was like that of hispredecessors. The Praetorians revolted and murdered him.
ALEXANDER SEVÉRUS was a good man, and well educated. But he endeavoredin vain to check the decline of the state. The military had become allpowerful, and he could effect nothing against it. During his reign(222-235), the famous baths begun by Caracalla were finished.
Sevérus was killed in a mutiny led by MAXIMIN, who was Emperor forthree years (235-238), and was then murdered by his mutinous soldiers.
GORDIAN, his successor (238-244), was also slain by his own soldiersin his camp on the Euphrates, and PHILIP (244-249) and DECIUS (249-251) both fell in battle. Under Decius was begun a persecution of theChristians severer than any that preceded it.
The next seventeen years (251-268) is a period of great confusion.Several generals in different provinces were declared Emperor. TheEmpire nearly fell to pieces, but finally rallied without loss ofterritory. Its weakness, however, was apparent to all. This period isoften called the AGE OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS.
FIVE GOOD EMPERORS now ruled and revived somewhat the shatteredstrength of the government: CLAUDIUS (268-270); AURELIAN (270-275);TACITUS (275-276); PROBUS (276-282); and CARUS (282-283). Aurelianundertook a campaign against the famous ZENOBIA, Queen of PALMÝRA. Inher he found a worthy foe, one whose political ability was renderedmore brilliant by her justice and courage. Defeated in the field, shefortified herself in Palmýra, which was taken after a siege anddestroyed. Zenobia was carried to Rome, where she graced the triumphof her conqueror, but was afterwards permitted to live in retirement.Aurelian was the first who built the walls of Rome in their presentposition.
With this ruler, the last vestige of the old republican form ofgovernment at Rome disappears. Old Rome was dead. Her Senate had lostthe last remnant of its respectability. Seeing the necessity of a moreunited country and a firmer rule, DIOCLETIAN associated with himselfMAXIMIAN, a gigantic soldier, who signalized his accession by subduinga dangerous revolt in Gaul. He also appointed two officers, GALERIUSand CONSTANTIUS, whom he called CAESARS,--one to have charge of theEast, and the other of the West. By means of these assistants hecrushed all revolts, strengthened the waning power of the Empire, andimposed peace and good order upon the world.
Diocletian and Maximian afterwards resigned, and allowed their twoCaesars to assume the rank of AUGUSTI, and they in their turnappointed Caesars as assistants.
Soon after his accession Constantius died, and his son CONSTANTINEwas proclaimed Caesar, against the wishes of Galerius. A bitter strugglefollowed, in which Constantine finally overcame all his opponents, andwas declared sole Emperor. For his successes he was named the GREAT.
Constantine determined to build for his Empire a new capital, whichshould be worthy of him. He selected the site of BYZANTIUM as offeringthe greatest advantages; for, being defended on three sides by the seaand the Golden Horn, it could easily be made almost impregnable, whileas a seaport its advantages were unrivalled,--a feature not in theleast shared by Rome. The project was entered upon with energy; thecity was built, and named CONSTANTINOPLE. To people it, the seat ofgovernment was permanently removed thither, and every inducement wasoffered to immigration. Thus was born the GREEK EMPIRE, destined todrag out a miserable existence for nearly a thousand years after Romehad fallen a prey to the barbarians. Its founder died, after a reignof thirty years, in his sixty-fourth year (337).
Constantine is entitled to great credit for the uniform kindness withwhich he treated his Christian subjects. It is said that his mother,HELENA, was a Christian, and that it was to her influence that thismildness was due. The sect, notwithstanding many persecutions, hadkept on increasing, until now we find them a numerous and quiteinfluential body. It was during his reign that the DECREE OF MILAN wasissued, in 313, giving the imperial license to the religion of Christ;and also in this reign the famous COUNCIL OF NICE, in Bithynia (325),met to settle questions of creed.
In person Constantine was tall and majestic: he was dexterous in allwarlike accomplishments; intrepid in war, affable in peace; patientand prudent in council, bold and unhesitating in action. Ambitionalone led him to attack the East; and the very madness of jealousymarked his course after his success. He was filial in his affectiontowards his mother; but he can scarcely be called affectionate who putto death his father-in-law, his brother-in-law, his wife, and his son.If he was great in his virtues, in his faults he was contemptible.
Constantine was succeeded by his three sons, CONSTANTINE II.,CONSTANTIUS, and CONSTANS, who divided the Empire among themselves(337-353). Constantine and Constans almost at once quarrelled over thepossession of Italy, and the difficulty was ended only by the death ofthe former. The other two brothers lived in harmony for some time,because the Persian war in the East occupied Constantius, whileConstans was satisfied with a life of indolence and dissipation.Constans was murdered in 350, and his brother was sole Emperor. Hedied ten years later, and was succeeded by his cousin, Julian (360-363)
JULIAN was a good soldier, and a man calculated to win the love andrespect of all. But he attempted to restore the old religion, and thusgained for himself the epithet of APOSTATE. The Christians, however,had too firm a hold on the state to admit of their powers beingshaken. The failure of Julian precluded any similar attempt afterward.After a reign of three years, he was killed in an expedition againstthe Persians. His successor, JOVIAN (363-364), who was chosen by thearmy, died after a reign of only seven months.
VALENTINIAN and VALENS (364-375). After a brief interregnum, thethrone was bestowed on Valentinian, who associated with himself hisbrother Valens. The Empire was divided. Valens took the East, withConstantinople as his capital. Valentinian took the West, making MILANthe seat of his government. So completely had Rome fallen from herancient position, that it is very doubtful if this monarch evervisited the city during his reign. [Footnote: Since the building ofConstantinople no Emperor had lived in Rome. She had ceased to bemistress even of the West, and rapidly fell to the rank of aprovincial city.] He died during a campaign on the Danube. His sonGRATIAN (375-383) succeeded him. He discouraged Paganism, and underhim Christianity made rapid strides. His uncle Valens was slain in abattle against the Goths; but so completely were the Eastern andWestern Empires now separated, that Gratian did not attempt to makehimself sole ruler, but appointed THEODOSIUS to the empty throne.Gratian, like so many of his predecessors, was murdered. Hissuccessors, MAXIMUS (383-388), VALENTINIAN II. (388-392), and EUGENIUS(392-394), were either deposed or assassinated, and again there was,for a short time, one ruler of the whole Empire, THEODOSIUS, whomGratian had made Emperor of the East. He was sole Emperor for one year(394-395). On his death his two sons divided the Empire, HONORIUS(395-423) taking the West, and Arcadius the East.
Honorius was only six years old when he began to reign. He was placedunder the care of a Vandal named STILICHO, to whom he was allied bymarriage. Stilicho was a man of ability. The barbarians were drivenfrom the frontiers on the Rhine and in Britain; a revolt in Africa wassuppressed. Honorius himself was weak and jealous. He did not hesitateto murder Stilicho as soon as he was old enough to see the power hewas wielding. With Stilicho's death his fortune departed. Rome wasbesieged, captured, and sacked by the barbarian ALARIC, in 410. Whenthis evil was past, numerous contestants arose in different parts ofthe Empire, each eager for a portion of the fabric which was now soobviously crumbling to pieces.
Honorius was succeeded, after one of the longest reigns of theimperial line, by VALENTINIAN III. (423-455). The Empire was but arelic of its former self. Gaul, Spain, and Britain were practicallylost; Illyria and Pannonia were in the hands of the Goths; and Africawas soon after seized by the barbarians. Valentinian was fortunate inthe possession of AETIUS, a Scythian by birth, who for a time upheldthe Roman name, winning for himself the title of LAST OF THE ROMANS.He was assassinated by his ungrateful master. A few months later, in455, the Emperor himself was killed by a Senator, MAXIMUS, whosucceeded him, but for only three months, when AVÍTUS (455-456), anoble of Gaul, became Emperor. He was deposed by RICIMER (457-467), aSueve, of considerable ability, who for some time managed the affairsof the Empire, making and unmaking its monarchs at pleasure. After theremoval of Avítus, ten months were allowed to elapse before asuccessor was appointed; and then the crown was bestowed uponMAJORIAN (457-461). SEVÉRUS followed him, a man too weak to interferewith the plans of Ricimer.
After his death, Ricimer ruled under the title of PATRICIAN, until thepeople demanded an Emperor, and he appointed ANTHEMIUS (467-472), whoattempted to strengthen his position by marrying a daughter ofRicimer; but jealousy soon sprang up between them. Ricimer invited ahorde of barbarians from across the Alps, with whom he captured andsacked Rome, and killed Anthemius. Shortly after, Ricimer himselfdied.
Names which appear only as names now follow each other in rapidsuccession. Finally, in 476, ZENO, Emperor of the East, declared theoffice of EMPEROR OF THE WEST abolished, and gave the government ofthe DIOCESE OF ITALY to ODOÁCER, with the title of Patrician.
CHAPTER XLII.
The sieges and captures of Rome by the Barbarians we present in aseparate chapter, instead of in the narrative of the Emperors, becauseby this plan a better idea of the operations can be given; andespecially because we can thus obtain a clearer and more comprehensiveconception of the rise of the nations, which, tearing in pieces theRoman Empire, have made up Modern Europe.
The HUNS, who originated the movement which overthrew the WesternEmpire, came, it is supposed, from the eastern part of Asia. As theymoved westward, their march was irresistible. In 395 they met anddefeated the GOTHS, a powerful tribe that lived to the north of theDanube, and who were ruled by a king named Hermanric.
The Gothic nation consisted of two branches, the OSTROGOTHS, EasternGoths, and the VISIGOTHS, Western Goths, Of these the Ostrogoths werethe more powerful, but on the approach of the Huns they were obligedto submit. The Huns moved on, and found but little trouble inoverrunning the country of the Visigoths, who were so terrified by thehideous appearance and wild shouts of the Huns that they fled to theDanube, and besought the Romans to allow them to cross the river andtake refuge in their territory. The favor was granted, but therefugees were treated with indignity, and compelled to undergo everyprivation.
Subsequently a remnant of the Ostrogoths arrived at the Danube, alsodesiring to cross. To them permission was refused, but they seizedshipping and crossed, despite the prohibition of the Romans. Theyfound the condition of their brethren, the Visigoths, so sad, thatthey united with them in open revolt, defeated a Roman army sentagainst them, and ravaged Thrace. The Emperor Valens took the field inperson, and was defeated (378). The Goths then moved southward andwestward into Greece, everywhere pillaging the country.
When Theodosius became Emperor, he acted cautiously, fortifying strongpoints from which to watch the enemy and select a favorable moment foran attack. At length he surprised their camp and gained a completevictory. The Goths were taken into the service of the Empire, and thefirst chapter of the barbarian invasion of the Empire was brought to aclose.
We now meet two of the great names connected with the fall of Rome,ALARIC and STILICHO.
Theodosius was succeeded by Arcadius, and before the end of the yearthe Goths broke into open revolt under their leader, Alaric. Athenswas compelled to pay a ransom; Corinth, Argos, and Sparta were takenand plundered. No place was strong enough to offer effectualresistance. At this juncture, Stilicho, General of the Western Empire,hastened to the scene, and succeeded in surrounding the Goths, butAlaric burst through his lines and escaped. He then made peace withConstantinople, and the office of Master-General of Illyricum wasbestowed upon him. How sincere the barbarian was in his offers ofpeace may be seen from the fact that in two years he invaded Italy(400).
Honorius, who was then Emperor of the West, was a man so weak thateven the genius of Stilicho could not save him. No sooner did he hearof the approach of Alaric, than he hastened to a place of safety forhimself, leaving Stilicho to defend Rome. Troops were called fromBritain, Gaul, and the other provinces far and near, leaving theirplaces vacant and defenceless. Honorius, who had attempted to escapeto Gaul, was surprised by Alaric, and, taking refuge in the fortifiedtown of Asta, was there besieged until the arrival of the braveStilicho, who attacked the besiegers, and after a bloody fight utterlyrouted them. In his retreat, Alaric attempted to attack Verona, but hewas again defeated, and escaped only by the fleetness of his horse.Honorius returned home (404), and enjoyed a triumph.
Rome had scarcely time to congratulate herself upon her escape fromthe Goths, when she was threatened by a new enemy.
The Huns, pushing westward, had dislodged the northern tribes ofGermany who dwelt on the Baltic. These were the Alans, Sueves,Vandals, and Burgundians. Under the leadership of RADAGAISUS, thesetribes invaded Italy with about two hundred thousand men. They weremet near Florence by Stilicho, and totally defeated (406). Radagaisushimself was killed. The survivors turned backward, burst into Gaul,ravaged the lower portion of the country, and finally separated. Oneportion, the Burgundians, remained on the frontier, and from theirdescendants comes the name of Burgundy.
The Alans, Sueves, and Vandals pushed on into Spain, where theyestablished kingdoms. The Alans occupied the country at the foot ofthe Pyrenees, but were soon after subdued by the Visigoths. The Suevessettled in the northwest of Spain, but met the same fate as the Alans.The Vandals occupied the southern part, and from there crossed over toAfrica, where they maintained themselves for nearly a century, and atone time were powerful enough, as we shall see, to capture Romeitself.
Rome was now for a time delivered from her enemies, and the Emperor,no longer needing Stilicho, was easily persuaded that he was plottingfor the throne. He was put to death, with many of his friends.
With Stilicho Rome fell. Scarcely two months after his death, Alaricagain appeared before Rome. He sought to starve the city intosubmission. Famine and pestilence raged within its walls. Finallypeace was purchased by a large ransom, and Alaric withdrew, but soonreturned. The city was betrayed, and after a lapse of eight centuriesbecame the second time a prey to the barbarians (24 August, 410).
The city was plundered for five days, and then Alaric withdrew toravage the surrounding country. But the days of this great leader werealmost spent. Before the end of the year he died, and shortly afterhis army marched into France, where they established a kingdomreaching from the Loire and the Rhone to the Straits of Gibraltar.
The GERMANS, under their king, CLODION, prompted by the example of theBurgundians and Visigoths, began, about 425, a series of attempts toenlarge their boundaries. They succeeded in establishing themselvesfirmly in all the country from the Rhine to the Somme, and under thename of FRANKS founded the present French nation in France (447).
Clodion left two sons, who quarrelled over the succession. The elderappealed to the Huns for support, the younger to Rome.
The Huns at this time were ruled by ATTILA, "the Scourge of God." Theportrait of this monster is thus painted. His features bore the markof his Eastern origin. He had a large head, a swarthy complexion,small deep-seated eyes, a flat nose, a few hairs in the place of abeard, broad shoulders, and a short square body, of nervous strengththough disproportioned form. This man wielded at will, it is said, anarmy of over half a million troops.
At the time he received from the son of Clodion the invitation tointerfere in the affairs of Gaul, Attila was already contemplating aninvasion of both the Western and Eastern Empires; but the prospect ofan ally in Gaul, with an opportunity of afterwards attacking Italyfrom the west, was too favorable to be neglected.
A march of six hundred miles brought the Huns to the Rhine. Crossingthis, they continued their progress, sacking and burning whatevercities lay in their route.
The Visigoths under Theodoric, joining the Romans under Aetius, metthe Huns near Orleans. Attila retreated towards Chalons, where, in451, was fought a great battle, which saved the civilization ofWestern Europe. Attila began the attack. He was bravely met by theRomans; and a charge of the Visigoths completed the discomfiture ofthe savages. Aetius did not push his victory, but allowed the Huns toretreat in the direction of Italy. The "Scourge" first attacked,captured, and rased to the ground Aquileia. He then scoured the wholecountry, sparing only those who preserved their lives by the surrenderof their wealth.
It was to this invasion that VENICE owed its rise. The inhabitants,who fled from the approach of the Huns, found on the islands in thelagoons at the head of the Adriatic a harbor of safety.
Attila died shortly after (453) from the bursting of a blood-vessel,and with his death the empire of the Huns ceased to exist. TheVANDALS, we have seen, had established themselves in Africa. They werenow ruled by GENSERIC. Carthage was their head-quarters, and they werecontinually ravaging the coasts of the Mediterranean with theirfleets.
Maximus, Emperor of Rome (455), had forcibly married Eudoxia, thewidow of the previous Emperor, Valentinian, whom he had killed. She inrevenge sent to Genseric a secret message to attack Rome. He at onceset sail for the mouth of the Tiber. The capital was delivered intohis hands on his promise to spare the property of the Church (June,455), and for fourteen days the Vandals ravaged it at pleasure.Genseric then left Rome, taking with him Eudoxia.
This was the last sack of the city by barbarians. But twenty-one yearselapsed before the Roman Empire came to an end (476).
CHAPTER XLIII.
PLAUTUS, the comic poet, was one of the earliest of Roman writers.Born at Sarsina in Umbria, of free parentage, he at first worked onthe stage at Rome, but lost his savings in speculation. Then for sometime he worked in a treadmill, but finally gained a living bytranslating Greek comedies into Latin. Twenty of his plays have comedown to us. They are lively, graphic, and full of fun, depicting amixture of Greek and Roman life.
TERENCE was a native of Carthage. He was brought to Rome at an earlyage as a slave of the Senator Terentius, by whom he was educated andliberated. Six of his comedies are preserved. Like the plays ofPlautus, they are free translations from the Greek, and of the samegeneral character.
QUINTUS ENNIUS, a native of Rudiae, was taken to Rome by Cato theYounger. Here he supported himself by teaching Greek. His epic poem,the Annàles, relates the traditional Roman history, from thearrival of Aenéas to the poet's own day.
MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, a native of Arpínum, ranks as the first prosewriter in Roman literature. As an orator Cicero had a very happynatural talent. The extreme versatility of his mind, his livelyimagination, his great sensitiveness, his inexhaustible richness ofexpression, which was never at a loss for a word or tone to suit anycircumstances or mood, his felicitous memory, his splendid voice andimpressive figure, all contributed to render him a powerful speaker.He himself left nothing undone to attain perfection. Not until he hadspent a long time in laborious study and preparation did he make hisdébut as an orator; nor did he ever rest and think himselfperfect, but, always working, made the most careful preparation forevery case. Each success was to him only a step to another stillhigher achievement; and by continual meditation and study he kepthimself fully equipped for his task. Hence he succeeded, as isuniversally admitted, in gaining a place beside Demosthenes, or at allevents second only to him.
There are extant fifty-seven orations of Cicero, and fragments oftwenty more. His famous Philippics against Antony caused hisproscription by the Second Triumvirate, and his murder near his villaat Formiae, in December, 43.
His chief writings on rhetoric were De Oratore; Brutus de ClarisOratoribus; and Orator ad M. Brutum. Cicero was a lover ofphilosophy, and his writings on the subject were numerous. Those mostread are De Senectute, De Amicitia, and De Officiis.
Eight hundred and sixty-four of Cicero's letters are extant, and theyfurnish an inexhaustible treasure of contemporaneous history.
Of CAESAR'S literary works the most important are hisCommentarii, containing the history of the first seven years ofthe Gallic war, and the history of the civil strife down to theAlexandrine war. The account of his last year in Gaul was writtenprobably by Aulus Hirtius; that of the Alexandrine, African, andSpanish wars, by some unknown hand. As an orator, Caesar ranks next toCicero.
CORNELIUS NEPOS, a native of Northern Italy, was a friend of bothCicero and Atticus. He was a prolific writer, but only his De VirisIllustribus is preserved. It shows neither historical accuracy norgood style.
TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS has left a didactic poem, De RerumNatura. The tone of the work is sad, and in many places bitter.
GAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS, of Veróna, is the greatest lyric poet ofRoman literature. One hundred and sixteen of his poems are extant.
The great epic Roman poet was VIRGIL. His Aenéis, in twelvebooks, gives an account of the wanderings and adventures of Aenéas,and his struggles to found a city in Italy. The poem was not revisedwhen Virgil died, and it was published contrary to his wishes.
Besides the Aenéis, Virgil wrote the Bucolica, tenEclogues imitated and partially translated from the Greek poetTheocritus. The Georgica, a poem of four books on agriculturein its different branches, is considered his most finished work, andthe most perfect production of Roman art-poetry. (See page 179.)
QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS left four books of Odes, one of Epodes, twoof Satires, two of Epistles, and the Ars Poetica. (See page180.)
ALBIUS TIBULLUS, an elegiac poet, celebrated in exquisitely fine poemsthe beauty and cruelty of his mistresses.
SEXTUS PROPERTIUS, a native of Umbria, was also an elegiac poet, andwrote mostly on love.
PUBLIUS OVIDIUS NASO left three books of Amores; one ofHeroides; the Ars Amatoria; Remedia Amoris; theMetamorphoses (fifteen books); the Tristia; and theFasti. (See page 181.)
TITUS LIVIUS left a history of Rome, of which thirty-five books havebeen preserved. (See page 181.)
PHAEDRUS, a writer of fables, flourished in the reign of Tiberius (14-
For an account of this writer see the chapter on the Emperor Nero,page 189.
QUINTUS CURTIUS RUFUS was a historian who lived in the reign ofClaudius (50 A.D.). He wrote a history of the exploits of Alexanderthe Great.
PERSIUS, a poet of the reign of Nero, was a native of Volaterrae. Hewrote six satires, which are obscure and hard to understand.
LUCAN, a nephew of Seneca, wrote an epic poem (not finished) calledPharsalia, upon the civil war between Caesar and Pompey.
GAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, of Northern Italy, was a great scholar inhistory, grammar, rhetoric, and natural science. His work onNatural History has come down to us.
STATIUS (45-96), a native of Naples, had considerable poetical talent.He wrote the Thebaid, the Achilleis (unfinished), and theSilvae.
MARTIAL (42-102), wrote sharp and witty epigrams, of which fifteenbooks are extant. He was a native of Spain.
QUINTILIAN (35-95), was also a native of Spain. He was a teacher ofeloquence for many years in Rome. His work On the Training of anOrator, is preserved.
JUVENAL(47-130), of Aquínum, was a great satirist, who described andattacked bitterly the vices of Roman society. Sixteen of his satiresare still in existence.
TACITUS (54-119). CORNELIUS TACITUS was the great historian of hisage. His birthplace is unknown. His writings are interesting and of ahigh tone, but often tinged with prejudice, and hence unfair. Hewrote,--
PLINY THE YOUNGER (62-113). Pliny the Younger was the adopted son ofPliny the Elder. He was a voluminous correspondent. We have nine booksof his letters, relating to a large number of subjects, and presentingvivid pictures of the times in which he lived. Their diction is fluentand smooth.
CHAPTER XLIV.
The Romans were famous for their excellent public roads, from thirteento fifteen feet wide. The roadbed was formed of four distinct layers,placed above the foundation. The upper layer was made of largepolygonal blocks of the hardest stone, fitted and joined together soas to make an even surface. On each side of the road were footpathsstrewn with gravel. Stone blocks for the use of equestrians were atregular distances, and also milestones telling the distance from Rome.
There were four main public roads:--
Brundisium.
After the conquest of Italy, all the additional Roman dominions weredivided into provinces. Sicily was the first Roman province. At firstPraetors were appointed to govern these provinces; but afterwardspersons who had been Praetors at Rome were appointed at the expirationof their office, with the title of PROPRAETOR. Later, the Consulsalso, at the end of their year of office, were sent to governprovinces, with the title of PROCONSUL. Such provinces were calledProvinciae Consuláres. The provinces were generally distributedby lot, but their distribution was sometimes arranged by agreementamong those entitled to them. The tenure of office was usually a year,but it was frequently prolonged. When a new governor arrived in theprovince, his predecessor was expected to leave within thirty days.
The governor was assisted by two QUAESTORS, who had charge of thefinancial duties of the government. Originally the governor wasobliged to account at Rome for his administration, from his own booksand those of the Quaestors; but after 61 B. C., he was obliged todeposit two copies of his accounts in the two chief cities of hisprovince, and to forward a third to Rome.
If the governor misconducted himself in the performance of hisofficial duties, the provincials might apply for redress to theSenate, and to influential Romans who were their patrons.
The governor received no salary, but was allowed to exact certaincontributions from the people of the province for the support ofhimself and his retinue, which consisted of quaestors, secretary,notary, lictors, augurs, and public criers. His authority was supremein military and civil matters, and he could not be removed fromoffice. But after his term had ended, he could be tried formismanagement.
Many of the governors were rascals, and obtained by unfair means vastsums of money from the provincials. One of the most notorious of thesewas Verres, against whom Cicero delivered his Verrine orations.
At the time of the battle of Actium there were eighteen provinces;viz. Sicilia (227 [Footnote: The figures in parentheses indicate thedate at which the province was established.]), Sardinia and Corsica(227), Hispania Citerior (205), Hispania Ulterior (205), Illyricum(167), Macedonia (146), Africa (146), Asia (133), Achaia (146), GalliaCiterior (80), Gallia Narbonensis (118), Cilicia (63), Syria (64),Bithynia and Pontus (63), Cyprus (55), Cyrenaica and Crete (63),Numidia (46), and Mauritania (46).
Under the Emperors the following sixteen were added: Rhoetia,Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia, Britannia, Aegyptus, Cappadocia,Galatia, Rhodus, Lycia, Judaea, Arabia, Mesopotamia. Armenia, andAssyria.
CHAPTER XLV.
[Footnote: Most of the information given in this chapter is scatteredin different parts of the history; but it seems well to condense itinto one chapter for readier reference.]
The magistrates of Rome were of two classes; the Majores, orhigher, and the Minores, or lower. The former, except theCensor, had the Imperium; the latter did not. To the formerclass belonged the Consuls, Praetors, and Censors, who were allelected in the Comitia Centuriáta. The magistrates were also dividedinto two other classes, viz. Curule and Non-Curule. The Curule officeswere those of Dictator, Magister Equitum, Consul, Praetor, Censor, andCurule Aedile. These officers had the right to sit in the sellacurúlis, chair of state. This chair was displayed upon all publicoccasions, especially in the circus and theatre; and it was the seatof the Praetor when he administered justice. In shape it was plain,resembling a common folding camp-stool, with crooked legs. It wasornamented with ivory, and later overlaid with gold.
The descendants of any one who had held a curule office were nobles,and had the right to place in their halls and to carry at funeralprocessions a wax mask of this ancestor, as well as of any otherdeceased members of the family of curule rank.
A person who first held a curule office, and whose ancestors had neverheld one, was called a novus homo, i. e. a new man. The mostfamous new men were Marius and Cicero.
The magistrates were chosen only from the patricians in the earlyrepublic; but in course of time the plebeians shared these honors.The plebeian magistrates, properly so called, were the plebeianAediles and the Tribúni Plebis.
All the magistrates, except the Censor, were elected for one year; andall but the Tribunes and Quaestors began their term of office onJanuary 1st. The Tribune's year began December 10th; that of theQuaestor, December 5th.
The offices, except that of Tribune, formed a gradation, through whichone must pass if he desired the consulship. The earliest age forholding each was, for the quaestorship, twenty-seven years; for theaedileship, thirty-seven; for the praetorship, forty; and for theconsulship, forty-three. No magistrate received any salary, and onlythe wealthy could afford to hold office.
The two Consuls were the highest magistrates, except when a Dictatorwas appointed, and were the chiefs of the administration. Their powerwas equal, and they had the right before all others of summoning theSenate and the Comitia Centuriáta, in each of which they presided."When both Consuls were in the city, they usually took turns inperforming the official duties, each acting a month; and during thistime the Consul was always accompanied in public by twelve lictors,who preceded him in single file, each carrying on his shoulders abundle of rods (fasces), to signify the power of the magistrateto scourge criminals. Outside the city, these fasces showed an axeprojecting from each bundle, signifying the power of the magistrate tobehead criminals."
At the expiration of his year of office, the Consul was sent to governa province for one year, and was then called the Proconsul. Hewas chief in his province in all military, civil, and criminal cases.
There were eight Praetors, whose duties were to administer justice(judges). After the expiration of their year of office, they went, asPropraetors, to govern provinces. The most important Praetorwas called Praetor Urbánus. He had charge of all civil suitsbetween Roman citizens. In the absence of both Consuls from the city,he acted in their place. Each Praetor was attended by two lictors inthe city, and by six outside. The Praetor Peregrínus had chargeof civil cases in which one or both parties were aliens. The other sixPraetors presided over the permanent criminal courts.
The Aediles were four officers who had the general superintendence ofthe police of the city, and the care of the public games andbuildings. Two of the Aediles were taken from the plebeians, and two,called Curule Aediles, ranked with the higher magistrates, and mightbe patricians. They were elected in the Comitia Tributa. Theirsupervision of the public games gave them great opportunities forgaining favor with the populace, who then, as now, delighted incircuses and contests. A small sum was appropriated from the publictreasury for these games; but an Aedile usually expended much from hisown purse to make the show magnificent, and thus to gain votes for thenext office, that of Praetor. Only the very wealthy could afford tohold this office.
There were twenty Quaestors. Two were city treasurers at Rome, havingcharge also of the archives. The others were assigned to the differentgovernors of the provinces, and acted as quartermasters. Through theirclerks, the two city Quaestors kept the accounts, received the taxes,and paid out the city's money, as directed by the Senate. A Quaestoralways accompanied every Imperator (general) in the field as hisquartermaster. The elections for Quaestors were held in the ComitiaTribúta.
There were ten Tribunes, elected in the Comitia Tribúta. They werealways plebeians, and their chief power lay in their right to veto anydecree of the Senate, any law of the Comitia, and any public act of amagistrate. Their persons were considered sacred, and no one couldhinder them in the discharge of their official duties under penalty ofdeath. They called together the Comitia Tribúta, and they also hadauthority to convene the Senate and to preside over it. Sullasucceeded in restricting their power; but Pompey restored it. TheTribunes did not possess the imperium.
There were two Censors, chosen from Ex-Consuls, and they held officefor eighteen months. They were elected once every five years, thisperiod being called a lustrum. They ranked as higher magistrateswithout possessing the imperium. Their duties were:
In cases of great danger the Senate called upon the Consuls to appointa Dictator, who should possess supreme power, but whose tenure ofoffice could never exceed six months. In later times Dictators werenot appointed, but Consuls were invested with the authority if it wasthought necessary. Sulla and Caesar, however, revived the office, butchanged its tenure, the latter holding it for life.
This was an officer appointed by the Dictator, to stand next inauthority to him, and act as a sort of Vice-Dictator.
The priests formed a body (collegium) of fifteen members, atthe head of whom was the Pontifex Maximus (high priest). Their tenureof office was for life, and they were responsible to no one in thedischarge of their duties. Their influence was necessarily very great.
This was a power to command the armies, and to exercise judicialfunctions conferred upon a magistrate (Dictator, Consul, or Praetor)by a special law passed by the Comitia Curiáta. The Imperiumcould be exercised only outside of the city walls (pomoerium),except by special permission of the Senate for the purpose ofcelebrating a triumph. The one receiving the Imperium wascalled IMPERATOR.
This was the power, in general, which all magistratespossessed.
CHAPTER XLVI.
The private houses of the Romans were poor affairs until after theconquest of the East, when money began to pour into the city. Manyhouses of immense size were then erected, adorned with columns,paintings, statues, and costly works of art. Some of these houses aresaid to have cost as much as two million dollars.
The principal parts of a Roman house were the Vestibulum,Ostium, Atrium, Alae, Tablínum, Fauces, and Peristylium.The VESTIBULUM was a court surrounded by the house on three sides,and open on the fourth to the street. The OSTIUM corresponded ingeneral to our front hall. From it a door opened into the ATRIUM, whichwas a large room with an opening in the centre of its roof, through whichthe rain-water was carried into a cistern placed in the floor under theopening. To the right and left of the Atrium were side rooms called theALAE, and the TABLÍNUM was a balcony attached to it. The passagesfrom the Atrium to the interior of the house were called FAUCES. ThePERISTYLIUM, towards which these passages ran, was an open courtsurrounded by columns, decorated with flowers and shrubs. It wassomewhat larger than the Atrium.
The floors were covered with stone, marble, or mosaics. The walls werelined with marble slabs, or frescoed, while the ceilings were eitherbare, exposing the beams, or, in the finer houses, covered with ivory,gold, and frescoing.
The main rooms were lighted from above; the side rooms received theirlight from these, and not through windows looking into the street. Thewindows of rooms in upper stories were not supplied with glass untilthe time of the Empire. They were merely openings in the wall, coveredwith lattice-work. To heat a room, portable stoves were generallyused, in which charcoal was burned. There were no chimneys, and thesmoke passed out through the windows or the openings in the roofs.
The rooms of the wealthy were furnished with great splendor. The wallswere frescoed with scenes from Greek mythology, landscapes, etc. Inthe vestibules were fine sculptures, costly marble walls, and doorsornamented with gold, silver, and rare shells. There were expensiverugs from the East, and, in fact, everything that could be obtainedlikely to add to the attractiveness of the room.
Candles were used in early times, but later the wealthy used lamps,which were made of terra-cotta or bronze. They were mostly oval, flaton the top, often with figures in relief. In them were one or moreround holes to admit the wick. They either rested on tables, or weresuspended by chains from the ceiling.
The meals were the JENTACULUM, PRANDIUM, and COENA. The first was ourbreakfast, though served at an early hour, sometimes as early as fouro'clock. It consisted of bread, cheese, and dried fruits. The prandiumwas a lunch served about noon. The coena, or dinner, served betweenthree and sunset, was usually of three courses. The first courseconsisted of stimulants, eggs, or lettuce and olives; the second,which was the main course, consisted of meats, fowl, or fish, withcondiments; the third course was made up of fruits, nuts, sweetmeats,and cakes.
At elaborate dinners the guests assembled, each with his napkin andfull dress of bright colors. The shoes were removed so as not to soilthe couches. These couches usually were adapted for three guests, whoreclined, resting the head on the left hand, with the elbow supportedby pillows. The Romans took the food with their fingers. Dinner wasserved in a room called the TRICLINIUM. In Nero's "Golden House," thedining-room was constructed like a theatre, with shifting scenes tochange with every course.
The Roman men usually wore two garments, the TUNICA and TOGA. Theformer was a short woollen under garment with short sleeves. To have along tunic with long sleeves was considered a mark of effeminacy. Thetunic was girded round the waist with a belt. The toga was peculiarlya Roman garment, and none but citizens were allowed to wear it. It wasalso the garment of peace, in distinction from the SAGUM, which wasworn by soldiers. The toga was of white wool and was nearlysemicircular, but being a cumbrous garment, it became customary inlater times to wear it only on state occasions. The poor wore only thetunic, others wore, in place of the toga, the LACERNA, which was anopen cloak, fastened to the right shoulder by a buckle. Boys, untilabout sixteen, wore a toga with a purple hem.
The women wore a TUNIC, STOLA, and PULLA. The stola was a loosegarment, gathered in and girdled at the waist with a deep flounceextending to the feet. The pulla was a sort of shawl to throw over thewhole figure, and to be worn out of doors. The ladies indulged theirfancy for ornaments as freely as their purses would allow.
Foot-gear was mostly of two kinds, the CALCEUS and the SOLEAE. Theformer was much like our shoe, and was worn in the street. The latterwere sandals, strapped to the bare foot, and worn in the house. Thepoor used wooden shoes.
Bathing was popular among the wealthy. Fine buildings were erected,with elegant decorations, and all conveniences for cold, warm, hot,and vapor baths. These bath-houses were very numerous, and were placesof popular resort. Attached to many of them were rooms for exercise,with seats for spectators. The usual time for bathing was just beforedinner. Upon leaving the bath, it was customary to anoint the bodywith oil.
The SATURNALIA was the festival of Saturn, to whom the inhabitants ofLatium attributed the introduction of agriculture and the arts ofcivilized life. It was celebrated near the end of December,corresponding to our Christmas holidays, and under the Empire lastedseven days. During its continuance no public business was transacted,the law courts were closed, the schools had a holiday, and slaves wererelieved from all ordinary toil. All classes devoted themselves topleasure, and presents were interchanged among friends.
The LUPERCALIA; a festival in honor of Lupercus, the god of fertility,was celebrated on the 15th of February. It was one of the most ancientfestivals, and was held in the Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus weresaid to have been nursed by the she wolf (lupa). The priests ofLupercus were called LUPERCI. They formed a collegium, but theirtenure of office is not known. On the day of the festival thesepriests met at the Lupercal, offered sacrifice of goats, and took ameal, with plenty of wine. They then cut up the skins of the goatswhich they had sacrificed. With some of these they covered parts oftheir bodies, and with others, they made thongs, and, holding them intheir hands, ran through the streets of Rome, striking with them allwhom they met, especially women, as it was believed this would renderthem fruitful.
The QUIRINALIA was celebrated on the 17th of February, when Quirínus(Romulus) was said to have been carried up to heaven.
Gladiators were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre andother places, for the amusement of the people. These shows were firstexhibited at Rome in 264 B. c., and were confined to public funerals;but afterwards gladiators were to be seen at the funerals of most menof rank. Under the Empire the passion for this kind of amusementincreased to such an extent, that gladiators were kept and trained inschools (ludi) and their trainers were called Lanistae.The person who gave an exhibition was called an EDITOR. He published(edere), some time before the show, a list of the combatants.In the show the fights began with wooden swords, but at the sound ofthe trumpet these were exchanged for steel weapons. When a combatantwas wounded, if the spectators wished him spared, they held theirthumbs down, but turned them up if they wanted him killed. Gladiatorswho had served a long time, were often discharged and presented with awooden sword (rudis), Hence they were called rudiarii.
The AMPHITHEATRE was a place for the exhibition of gladiatorial shows,combats of wild beasts, and naval engagements. Its shape was that ofan ellipse, surrounded by seats for the spectators. The wordAmphitheatre was first applied to a wooden building erected by Caesar.Augustus built one of stone in the Campus Martius, but the mostcelebrated amphitheatre was built by Vespasian and Titus, anddedicated in 80 A. D. It is still standing, though partly in ruins,covers nearly six acres, and could seat ninety thousand people. Thename given to it to-day is the COLOSSÉUM. The open space in the centrewas called the ARÉNA, and was surrounded by a wall about fifteen feethigh to protect the spectators from the wild beasts. Before the timeof Caesar the shows were held in the Forum and in the Circus.
The THEATRE was never as popular with the Romans as with the Greeks.The plays of Plautus and Terence were acted on temporary woodenstages. The first stone theatre was built by Pompey in 55 B. C., nearthe Campus Martius. It was a fine building, with a seating capacity offorty thousand. The seats were arranged in a semicircle, as atpresent, the orchestra being reserved for the Senators and otherdistinguished persons. Then came fourteen rows of seats for theEquites, and behind these sat the ordinary crowd.
The CIRCUS MAXIMUS. between the Palatine and Aventine Hills, was builtfor chariot races, boxing, and gymnastic contests. It was an immensestructure, with galleries three stories high, and a canal calledEurípus, and it accommodated one hundred thousand spectators. In thecentre Caesar erected an obelisk one hundred and thirty-two feet high,brought from Egypt. The seats were arranged as in the theatre. Sixkinds of games were celebrated: 1st, chariot racing; 2d, a sham-fightbetween young men on horseback; 3d, a sham-fight between infantry andcavalry; 4th, athletic sports of all kinds; 5th, fights with wildbeasts, such as lions, boars, etc.; 6th, sea fights. Water was letinto the canal to float ships. The combatants were captives, orcriminals condemned to death, who fought until one party was killed,unless saved by the kindness of the Emperor.
The Imperator, when he returned from a successful campaign, wassometimes allowed to enjoy a triumphal procession, provided he hadbeen Dictator, Consul, or Praetor. No one desiring a triumph everentered the city until the Senate decided whether or not he deservedone. When a favorable decision was reached, the temples were allthrown open, garlands of flowers decorated every shrine and image, andincense smoked on every altar. The Imperator ascended the triumphalcar and entered a city gate, where he was met by the whole body of theSenate, headed by the magistrates.
The procession then proceeded in the following order:--
Carts laden with spoils, often very costly and numerous. 4. A body offlute-players. 5. White bulls and oxen for sacrifice. 6. Elephants andrare animals from the conquered countries. 7. The arms and insignia ofthe leaders of the conquered enemy. 8. The leaders themselves, withtheir relatives and other captives. 9. The lictors of the Imperator insingle file, their fasces wreathed with laurel. 10. The Imperatorhimself, in a circular chariot drawn by four horses. He was attired ina gold-embroidered robe, and a flowered tunic; he held a laurel boughin his right hand, a sceptre in his left, and his brow was encircledwith a laurel wreath. 11. The grown up sons and officers of theImperator. 12. The whole body of infantry, with spears adorned withlaurel.
The OVATION was a sort of smaller triumph. The commander entered thecity on foot, or in later times on horseback. He was clothed in apurple-bordered robe. His head was crowned with laurel, and a sheep(ovis) was sacrificed, instead of a bull as in the case of atriumph.
The Pomoerium was the sacred enclosure of the city, inside of which noperson holding the Imperium was allowed to enter. It did notalways run parallel to the city walls.
Every man in Rome had three names. The given name (praenomen),as Lucius, Marcus, Gaius. The name of the gens (nomen), asCornelius, Tullius, Julius. The name of the family (cognómen),as Scipio, Cicero, Caesar. To these names was sometimes added another,the agnomen, given for some exploit, or to show that the personwas adopted from some other gens. Thus Scipio the elder was calledAFRICÁNUS, and all his descendants had the right to the name.Africánus the younger was adopted from the Cornelian gens into theAemilian gens; therefore he added to his other names AEMILIÁNUS.
The women were called only by the name of their gens. The daughter ofScipio was called, for example, CORNELIA, and to distinguish her fromothers of the Cornelian gens she was called Cornelia daughter ofScipio. If there were more than one daughter, to the name of theeldest was added prima (first), to that of the next, secunda(second), etc.
Intermarriage (connubium) between patricians and plebeians wasforbidden previous to 445, and after that the offspring of suchmarriages took the rank of the father. After the parties had agreed,to marry, and the consent of the parents or persons in authority wasgiven, the marriage contract was drawn up and signed by both parties.The wedding day was then fixed upon. This could not fall upon theKalends, Nones, or Ides of any month, or upon any day in May orFebruary. The bride was dressed in a long white robe, with a bridalveil, and shoes of a bright yellow color. She was conducted in theevening to her future husband's home by three boys, one of whomcarried before her a torch, the other two supporting her by the arm.They were accompanied by friends of both parties. The groom receivedthe bride at the door, which she entered with distaff and spindle inhand. The keys of the house were then delivered to her. The day endedwith a feast given by the husband, after which the bride was conductedto the bridal couch, in the atrium, which was adorned with flowers. Onthe following day another feast was given by the husband, and the wifeperformed certain religious rites.
The position of the Roman woman after marriage was very different fromthat of the Greek. She presided over the whole household, educated herchildren, watched over and preserved the honor of the house, andshared the honors and respect shown to her husband.
When a Roman was at the point of death, his nearest relative presentendeavored to catch the last breath with his mouth. The ring wasremoved from the dying person's hand, and as soon as he was dead hiseyes and mouth were closed by the nearest relative, who called uponthe deceased by name, exclaiming "Farewell!" The body was then washed,and anointed with oil and perfumes, by slaves or undertakers. A smallcoin was placed in the mouth of the body to pay the ferryman (Charon)in Hades, and the body was laid out on a couch in the vestibulum, withits feet toward the door. In early times all funerals were held atnight; but in later times only the poor followed this custom, mainlybecause they could not afford display. The funeral, held the ninth dayafter the death, was headed by musicians playing mournful strains, andmourning women hired to lament and sing the funeral song. These weresometimes followed by players and buffoons, one of whom representedthe character of the deceased, and imitated his words and actions.Then came the slaves whom the deceased had liberated, each wearing thecap of liberty. Before the body were carried the images of the deadand of his ancestors, and also the crown and military rewards which hehad gained. The couch on which the body was carried was sometimes madeof ivory, and covered with gold and purple. Following it were therelatives in mourning, often uttering loud lamentations, the womenbeating their breasts and tearing their hair.
The procession of the most illustrious dead passed through the Forum,and stopped before the Rostra, where a funeral oration wasdelivered. From here the body was carried to its place of burial,which must be outside the city. Bodies were sometimes cremated, and inthe later times of the Republic this became quite common.
In early times the education of the Romans was confined to reading,writing, and arithmetic; but as they came in contact with the Greeks ataste for higher education was acquired. Greek slaves (paedagogi)were employed in the wealthy families to watch over the children, andto teach them to converse in Greek.
A full course of instruction included the elementary branchesmentioned above, and a careful study of the best Greek andLatin writers, besides a course in philosophy and rhetoric, under somewell known professor abroad, usually at Athens or Rhodes.
The most common material on which books were written was the thin rindof the Egyptian papyrus tree. Besides the papyrus, parchment was oftenused. The paper or parchment was joined together so as to form onesheet, and was rolled on a staff, whence the name volume (fromvolvere, to roll).
Letter writing was very common among the educated. Letters wereusually written with the stylus, an iron instrument like apencil in size and shape, on thin slips of wood or ivory covered withwax, and folded together with the writing on the inside. The slipswere tied together by a string, and the knot was sealed with wax andstamped with a signet ring. Letters were also written on parchmentwith ink. Special messengers were employed to carry letters, as therewas no regular mail service. Roman letters differed from ours chieflyin the opening and close. The writer always began by sending"greeting" to the person addressed, and closed with a simple"farewell," without any signature. Thus "Cicero S. D. Pompeio" (S. D.= sends greeting) would be the usual opening of a letter from Ciceroto Pompey.
CHAPTER XLVII.
Rome was built on seven hills,--the Palatine, the Aventine, theCapitoline, the Esquiline (the largest), the Quirínal, the Viminal,and the Coelian.
Temples were numerous. The Pantheon (temple of all the gods),built by Agrippa and restored by Hadrian, was dedicated to Jupiter. Itwas situated outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, and is nowused as a Christian church. The Temple of Apollo Palatínus, built byAugustus, was on the Palatine Hill. It contained a library, which wasfounded by Augustus. The Temple of Aesculapius was on an island in theTiber; that of Concordia, on the slope of the Capitoline Hill, wasdedicated in 377 B.C., and restored by Tiberius. The Temple of Januswas an arched passage east of the Forum, the gates of which were openduring war. Up to the time of Ovid the gates had been closed but threetimes, once in Numa's reign, again at the close of the [Illustration: ROMEAND ENVIRONS K. D. Servoss, Eng'r, N. Y.] Second Punic War, andafter the battle of Actium. Janus was one of the oldest Latin divinities,and was represented with a face in front and another on the back of hishead. From him is named the month of January.
There were several temples of Jupiter, the most famous of which wasthat of Jupiter Optimus, Maximus, or Capitolínus, built during thedynasty of the Tarquins, and splendidly adorned. (See Chapter V.)There were also numerous temples of Juno, of Mars, and of otherdeities.
The COLOSSÉUM was the largest building in Rome.
There were three theatres; that of Pompey, of Marcellus, and ofBalbus; and several circuses, the most famous of which was the CircusMaximus.
The BASILICAE were halls of justice (court-houses). The most importantwas the Basilica Julia, begun by Caesar and finished by Augustus,which was situated on the south side of the Forum, and the foundationsof which can still be seen.
The CURIA, or Senate-house, was in the Forum. Each of the thirtycuriae had a place of meeting, called also a curia, where werediscussed public questions pertaining to politics, finance, orreligion.
The PUBLIC BATHS were numerous. There were Thermae (hot baths) ofNero, of Titus, of Trajan, of Caracalla, and of others, ruins of whichstill exist.
Pure water was brought into the city from the surrounding hills byfourteen different aqueducts, all of which were well built, and threeof which are still in use. The first aqueduct (Aqua Appia) was builtabout 313 B.C., by Appius Claudius.
SEWERS intersected Rome in all directions, and some were of immensesize. The CLOÁCA MAXIMA, built by Tarquin, was the largest, and isstill in use. Its innermost arch has a diameter of fourteen feet.
There are said to have been twenty TRIUMPHAL ARCHES, of which five nowremain, 1. The ARCH OF DRUSUS, on the Appian Way, erected in honor ofClaudius Drusus. 2. The ARCH OF TITUS, at the foot of the PalatineHill, built by Titus to commemorate his conquest of Judaea, The bas-reliefs on this arch represent the spoils taken from the temple atJerusalem, carried in triumphal procession. 3. The ARCH OF SEPTIMIUSSEVERUS, built by the Senate in 207 A. D., at the end of the ViaSacra, in honor of the Emperor and his two sons for their conquest ofthe Parthians and Arabians. 4. The ARCH OF GALLIÉNUS. 5. The ARCH OFCONSTANTINE.
There were two famous MAUSOLÉA, that of Augustus, now in ruins, andthat of Hadrian, which, stripped of its ornaments, is now the Castleof San Angelo.
The COLUMNS commemorating persons or events were numerous. The mostremarkable of these were erected for naval victories, and calledCOLUMNAE ROSTRÁTAE. The one of Duilius, in honor of the victory atMylae (261 B. C.), still stands. It has three ship-beaks attached toeach side. Columns were built in honor of several Emperors. That ofTrajan is perhaps best known.
The COLUMNA MILLIARIA was a milestone set up by Augustus in the Forum,from which all distances on the different public roads were measured.It was called Milliarium Aureum, or the golden milestone.
| CHAPTER XLVIII. |
Colonies were established by Rome throughout its whole history. Theywere intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to represshostile incursions. Many were founded to provide for veteran soldiers;a practice which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the Emperors.
No colony was established without a lex, plebiscítum, orsenatus consultum. Religious ceremonies always accompaniedtheir foundation, and the anniversary was observed.
The colonies were divided into two classes, viz. Roman, and Latin ormilitary. Members of the former class had all the rights of Romancitizens; those of the latter could not vote in the Comitia at Rome.The Latíni, who were once Roman citizens, and who always feltequal to them, were uneasy in their subordinate position. But by theJulian law, passed in 90 B. C., they acquired the right of voting atRome, and were placed on the same footing as Roman colonists.
The Roman year began with March. There were twelve months, and eachmonth had three divisions, the KALENDS, NONES, and IDES. The Kalendsfell on the first of the month; the Nones, on the 7th of March, May,July, and October; in other months, on the 5th. The Ides came eightdays after the Nones. If an event happened on these divisions, it wassaid to occur on the Kalends, Nones, or Ides of the month. If ithappened between any of these divisions, it was said to occur so manydays before the division following the event. The year wasreckoned from the foundation of the city (753 B.C.), and often thenames of the Consuls of that year were added.
The Romans were religious, and had numerous gods and goddesses:JUPITER and JUNO, the god and goddess of light; SATURN, the god ofseed-sowing; TELLUS, the goddess of the nourishing earth; CERES, thegoddess of growth; CONSUS and OPS, who presided over the harvest;PALES, the god of the flocks; and LUPERCUS, the god of fertility.Various festivals were celebrated in honor of these, as theSaturnalia, in December; the Tellilia (Tellus), Cerialia (Ceres), andPalilia (Pales), in April; and the Lupercalia, in February.
VESTA was the goddess of the house, and as every family had an altarerected for her worship, so the state, as a combination of families,had a common altar to her in the temple of Vesta. In this temple werealso worshipped the Penátes and Lares.
The LARES were special guardians of private houses. Some protectedfields and cities. Images of Lares of diminutive size, clad often indog-skins, were ranged along the hearth. The people honored them onthe Kalends of May and other festival days by decking them withflowers, and by offering them wine, incense, flour, and portions oftheir meals upon plates.
The PENÁTES were kept and worshipped only in the inmost chambers ofhouses and temples. Their statues, made of wax, wood, or ivory, werealso kept in the inner hall.
The priestesses of Vesta were six in number, and were called VESTALVIRGINS. When a vestal was to be elected, the Pontifex Maximus chosetwenty young girls from high families. Of these one was chosen by lotto fill the vacancy, and she was bound to serve for thirty years. TheVestals were preceded by a lictor when in public. They had privateseats in the public shows, and had the power of delivering frompunishment any condemned person they happened to meet. They wore whitedresses and white fillets. Their chief duty was to keep the firealways burning on the hearth (focus publicus) in the temple.They could not marry.
The FLAMINES were priests devoted to the service of some particulargod. There were fifteen, and they were chosen first in the ComitiaCuriáta, and afterwards probably in the Tributa. The mostdistinguished of all the Flamines was the FLAMEN DIÁLIS (Jupiter). Hehad the right to a lictor, to the sella curulis, and to a seatin the Senate. If one in bonds took refuge in his house, the chainswere at once removed. This priest, however, could not be away from thecity a single night, and was forbidden to sleep out of his own bed forthree consecutive nights. He was not allowed to mount a horse, or evento touch one, or to look upon an army outside of the city walls.
These were priests of Mars, twelve in number, and always chosen fromthe patricians. They celebrated the festival of Mars on the 1st ofMarch, and for several successive days.
This body varied in number, from three, in early times, to sixteen inthe time of Caesar. It was composed of men who were believed tointerpret the will of the gods, and to declare whether the omens werefavorable or otherwise. No public act of any kind could be performed,no election held, no law passed, no war waged, without firstconsulting the omens. There was no appeal from the decision of theAugurs, and hence their power was great. They held office for life,and were a close corporation, filling their own vacancies until 103 B.
This was another body of priests holding office for life, andnumbering probably twenty. They were expected, whenever any disputearose with other nations, to demand satisfaction, to determine whetherhostilities should be begun, and to preside at any ratification ofpeace.
CHAPTER XLIX.
The LEGIO was composed of infantry, and, though larger, correspondedto our regiment. It was divided into ten cohorts (battalions), eachcohort into three maniples (companies), and each maniple into twocenturies (platoons). In theory the number in each legion was sixthousand, in practice about four thousand. The usual order of battlewas to draw up each legion in three lines (acies triplex), thefirst consisting of four cohorts, the second and third of three each.The defensive armor of the legionary soldier was a helmet of metal orleather, a shield (four feet by two and a half), greaves, andcorselets of various material. The outer garment was a woollenblanket, fastened to the shoulders by a buckle. Higher officers wore along purple cloak. The offensive armor was a short, straight two-edgedsword (gladius), about two feet long, worn by privates on theright side, so as not to interfere with the shield, but on the leftside by officers. The javelin (pilum) was a heavy wooden shaftwith an iron head, the whole about seven feet long and weighing fullyten pounds. All legionary soldiers were Roman citizens. Theauxiliaries were hired or drafted troops, and were always light-armed.The cavalry in Caesar's time was made up of auxiliaries taken from thedifferent provinces.
The officers were:--
The COHORS PRAETORIA was a body of picked troops that acted as bodyguard to the Imperator.
The STANDARD (signum) of the legion was an eagle withoutstretched wings, perched upon a pole.
The Romans when on the march fortified their camp every night. Theymade it rectangular in shape, and threw up fortifications always inthe same way. It was surrounded by a ditch and rampart. The legionarysoldiers encamped next to the wall on the inside of thefortifications, thus surrounding the cavalry, the auxiliaries, thegeneral and his staff. The general's tent was called thePraetorium, and the entrance to the camp in front of his tentwas called the Praetorian Gate. The opposite entrance was called theDecuman Gate.
CHAPTER L.
AENEAS, son of Anchíses and Venus, fled from Troy after its capture bythe Greeks (1184?) and came to Italy. He was accompanied by his sonIÚLUS and a number of brave followers. LATÍNUS, who was king of thedistrict where Aenéas landed, received him kindly, and gave him hisdaughter, LAVINIA, in marriage. Aenéas founded a city, which he namedLAVINIUM, in honor of his wife. After his death, Iúlus, also calledASCANIUS, became king. He founded on Mount Albánus a city, which hecalled ALBA LONGA, and to it transferred the capital.
Here a number of kings ruled in succession, the last of whom wasSILVIUS PROCAS, who left two sons, NUMITOR, the older, and AMULIUS.They divided the kingdom, the former choosing the property, the latterthe crown. Numitor had two children, a son and a daughter. Amulius,fearing that they might aspire to the throne, murdered the son, andmade the daughter, RHEA SILVIA, a Vestal virgin. This he did toprevent her marrying, for this was forbidden to Vestal virgins. She,however, became pregnant by Mars, and had twin sons, whom she namedROMULUS and REMUS. When Amulius was informed of this, he cast theirmother into prison, and ordered the boys to be drowned in the Tiber.
At this time the river was swollen by rains, and had overflowed itsbanks. The boys were thrown into a shallow place, escaped drowning,and, the water subsiding, they were left on dry land. A she wolf,hearing their cries, ran to them and suckled them. FAUSTULUS, ashepherd who was near by, seeing this, took the boys home and rearedthem. When they grew up and learned who they were, they killedAmulius, and gave the kingdom to their grandfather, Numitor. Then(753) they founded a city on Mount Palatínus, which they called ROME,after Romulus. While they were building a wall around this city, Remuswas killed in a quarrel with his brother.
Romulus, first king of Rome, ruled for thirty-seven years (753-716).He found the city needed inhabitants, and to increase their number heopened an asylum, to which many refugees fled. But wives were needed.To supply this want, he celebrated games, and invited the neighboringpeople, the SABINES, to attend the sports. When all were engaged inlooking on, the Romans suddenly made a rush and seized the Sabinevirgins. This bold robbery caused a war, which finally ended in acompromise, and a sharing of the city with the Sabines. Romulus thenchose one hundred Senators, whom he called PATRES. He also divided thepeople into thirty wards. In the thirty-seventh year of his reign hedisappeared, and was believed to have been taken up into heaven.
One year followed without any king, and then NUMA POMPILIUS(716-673),a Sabine from Cures, was chosen. He was a good man, and a greatlawgiver. Many sacred rites were instituted by him to civilize hisbarbarous subjects. He reformed the calendar, and built a temple tothe god Janus. TULLUS HOSTILIUS(673-641) succeeded him. His reign wasnoted for the fall of Alba Longa. Then came ANCUS MARCIUS (640-616),the grandson of Numa. He was a good ruler and popular. He conqueredthe Latins, enlarged the city, and built new walls around it. He wasthe first to build a prison, and to bridge the Tiber. [Footnote: Thisbridge was called the pons sublicius i. e. a bridge resting onpiles.] He also founded a city at its mouth, which he called OSTIA.
The next three kings were of Etruscan origin. LUCIUS TARQUINIUSPRISCUS (616-578) went to Rome first during the reign of Ancus, and,becoming a favorite of his, was appointed guardian of his sons. Afterthe death of Ancus, he wrested the government from them, and becameking himself. He increased the Senators to two hundred, carried onmany wars successfully, and thus enlarged the territory of the city.He built the CLOÁCA MAXIMA, or great sewer, which is used to-day.Tarquin also began the temple of JUPITER CAPITOLÍNUS, on theCapitoline Hill. He was killed in the thirty-eighth year of his reignby the sons of Ancus, from whom he had snatched the kingdom.
His successor was his son-in-law, SERVIUS TULLIUS (578-534), whoenlarged the city still more, built a temple to Diána, and took acensus of the people. It was found that the city and suburbs contained83,000 souls. Servius was killed by his daughter, Tullia, and herhusband, Tarquinius Superbus, son of Priscus.
TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS succeeded to the throne (534-510). He wasenergetic in war, and conquered many neighboring places, among whichwas Ardea, a city of the Rutuli. He finished the temple of Jupiter,begun by his father. He also obtained the SIBYLLINE BOOKS. A womanfrom Cumae, a Greek colony, came to him, and offered for sale ninebooks of oracles and prophecies; but the price seemed exorbitant, andhe refused to purchase them. The sibyl then burned three, and,returning, asked the same price for the remaining six. The king againrefused. She burned three more, and obtained from the monarch for herlast three the original price. These books were preserved in theCapitol, and held in great respect. They were destroyed with thetemple by fire, on July 6, 83. Two men had charge of them, who werecalled duoviri sacrórum. The worship of the Greek deities,Apollo and Latóna, among others, was introduced through these books.
In 510 a conspiracy was formed against Tarquin by BRUTUS, COLLATÍNUS,and others, and the gates of the city were closed against him.[Footnote: The cause of the conspiracy was the violence offered bySextus, Tarquin's son, to Lucretia, wife of Collatínus. Unable to bearthe humiliation, she killed herself in the presence of her family,having first appealed to them to avenge her wrongs] A Republic wasthen formed, with two Consuls at the head of the government.
Tarquin made three attempts to recover his power at Rome, allunsuccessful. [Footnote: The victory of Lake Regillus, which has beenpainted by Macaulay in glowing colors, was gained over Tarquin in509.] In the last attempt (508), he was assisted by PORSENA, king ofthe Etruscans. They advanced against the city from the north. HORATIUSCOCLES, a brave young man, alone defended the bridge (panssublicius) over the Tiber until it was torn down behind him. Hethen swam the river in safety to his friends. [Footnote: SeeMacaulay's "Lays of Ancient Rome."]
During the siege of the city, QUINTUS MUCIUS SCAEVOLA, a courageousyouth, stole into the camp of the enemy with the intention of killingKing Porsena, but by mistake killed his secretary instead. He wasseized and carried to Porsena, who tried to frighten him by threats ofburning. Instead of replying, Scaevola held his right hand on theburning altar until it was consumed. The king, admiring this heroicact, pardoned him. Out of gratitude, Scaevola told the king that threehundred other men as brave as himself had sworn to kill him. Porsenawas so alarmed, that he made peace, and withdrew from the city. Muciusreceived his name Scaevola (left-handed) on account of this loss ofhis right hand.
Tarquin went to Tusculum, where he spent the rest of his days inretirement.
In 494 the plebeians at Rome rebelled, because they were exhausted bytaxes and military service. A large part of them left the city, andcrossed the Anio to a mountain (Mons Sacer) near by. The Senate sentMENENIUS AGRIPPA to treat with them. By his exertions [Footnote:Menenius is said to have related for them the famous fable of thebelly and members.] the people were induced to return to the city, andfor the first time were allowed to have officers chosen from their ownranks to represent their interests. These officers were called TribúniPlebis.
Two years later (492) Gaius Marcius, one of the patricians, met anddefeated the Volsci, a neighboring tribe, at CORIOLI. For this hereceived the name of CORIOLÁNUS. During a famine, he advised thatgrain should not be distributed to the plebeians unless theyrelinquished their right to choose the Tribúni Plebis. For this he wasbanished. Having obtained command of a Volscian army, he marchedagainst Rome, and came within five miles of the city. Here he was metby a deputation of his own citizens, who begged him to spare the city.He refused; but, when his wife and mother added their tears, he wasinduced to withdraw the army. He was afterwards killed by theVolscians as a traitor. [Footnote: See Shakespeare's "Coriolanus."]
After the expulsion of Tarquin, the FABII were among the mostdistinguished men at Rome. There were three brothers, and for sevenconsecutive years one of them was Consul. It looked as if the Fabiangens would get control of the government. The state took alarm, andthe whole gens, numbering 306 males and 4,000 dependents, was drivenfrom Rome. For two years they carried on war alone against theVeientes, but finally were surprised and slain (477). One boy, QuintusFabius Vibulánus, alone survived to preserve the name and gens of theFabii.
In 458 the Romans were hard pressed by the Aequi. Their territory hadbeen overrun, and their Consuls, cut off in some defiles, were inimminent danger of destruction. LUCIUS QUINCTUS CINCINNÁTUS wasappointed Dictator. He was one of the most noted Roman warriors ofthis period. The ambassadors sent to inform him of his appointmentfound him working with bare arms in his field. Cincinnátus told hiswife to throw over him his mantle, that he might receive themessengers of the state with proper respect. Such was the simplicityof his character, and yet so deeply did he reverence authority. TheAequi could not withstand his vigorous campaign, but were obliged soonto surrender, and made to pass under the yoke as a sign ofhumiliation. The Dictator enjoyed a well earned triumph.
In 451 one of the Decemviri, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, was captivated by thebeauty of a patrician maiden, VIRGINIA, [Footnote: See Macaulay's"Lays of Ancient Rome."] a daughter of Lucius Virginius, and thebetrothed of Lucius Icilius. He formed, with one of his tools, aninfamous plot to obtain possession of Virginia, under pretence thatshe was a slave. When, in spite of all the efforts of the girl'sfather and lover, the Decemvir had, in his official capacity, adjudgedher to be the slave of his tool, Virginius plunged a knife into hisdaughter's bosom, in presence of the people in the Forum. The enragedpopulace compelled the Decemviri to resign, and Appius, to escapeworse punishment, put an end to his own life.
MARCUS FURIUS CAMILLUS was a famous man of a little later period. Hewas called a second Romulus for his distinguished services. In 396 hecaptured Veii, after a siege of ten years. On his return he celebratedthe most magnificent triumph yet seen at Rome. He was afterwardsimpeached for not having fairly divided the spoils obtained at Veii,and went into exile at Ardea. When Rome was besieged by the Gaulsunder Brennus, in 390, Camillus was recalled and made Dictator. At thehead of forty thousand men he hastened to the city, raised the siege,and in the battle which followed annihilated the Gauls. He wasDictator five times, Interrex three times, Military Tribune twice, andenjoyed four triumphs. He died at the advanced age of eighty-eight.
BRENNUS was the famous leader of the Senones, a tribe of Gauls, whoinvaded Italy about 390. He defeated the Romans at the River Allia(July 18, 390), and captured the city, except the Capitol, which hebesieged for six months.
During the siege he tried to surprise the garrison, but was repulsedby Manlius, who was awakened by the cackling of some geese. Peace wasfinally purchased by the Romans by the payment of a thousand pounds ofgold. To increase the weight, Brennus is said to have thrown his swordon the scales. At this juncture, as the story runs, Camillus appearedwith his troops, ordered the gold to be removed, saying that Rome mustbe ransomed with steel, and not gold. In the battle which followed,the Gauls were defeated.
[The dates previous to 389 B.C. are uncertain.]
753. Foundation of Rome by Romulus.753-510. REGAL PERIOD.
753-716. Romulus.
716-673. Numa Pompilius.
673-641. Tullus Hostilius.
640-616. Ancus Marcius.
616-578. Tarquinius Priscus.
578-534. Servius Tullius.
534-510. Tarquinius Superbus.
510-30. THE REPUBLIC.
509. Battle of Lake Regillus.
508. Porsena. Horatius Codes.
494. Tribúni Plebis. Menenius Agrippa.492. Corioli. Coriolánus.
477. Destruction of the Fabian Gens.458. War with the Aequians. Cincinnátus.451. The Decemviri. Appius Claudius. Virginia.396. Capture of Veil. Camillus.
390. Siege of Rome by Brennus. Battle at the Allia river (July 18).387. The planting of the first military or Latin colonies.367. The Licinian Rogations.
353. Caere: the first Municipium.
343-341. First Samnite War.
340-338. The Latin War.
338. Antium, the first Roman or maritime colony.326-304, The Second Samnite War.
321. The Caudine Forks.
298-290. The Third Samnite War.
295. Sentínum.
283. Lake Vadimónis.
281-272. Pyrrhus.
280. Heracléa. Cineas.
279. Asculum.
274. Beneventum.
272. Rome mistress of Italy; morality at its height.264. Period of foreign conquest begins.264-241. First Punic War.
260. Lipara; Mylae.
257. Tyndaris.
256. Ecnomus. Regulus at Clupea.
249. Drepana.
241. Aegátes Insulae. Catulus. Hamilcar Barca.237. Sardinia and Corsica acquired, and provincial system established.229. Illyrican War. Important results.222. Gallia Cisalpína acquired by battle of Telamon.220. Hannibal in Spain.
219. Saguntum.
218-202. Second Punic War.
218. Ticinus. Trebia.
217. Trasiménus. Casilínum.216. Cannae.
212. Capture of Syracuse. Archimédes.207. Baecula. Metaurus.
202. Zama.
214-205. First Macedonian War.
200-197. Second Macedonian War.
198. Cynoscephalae.
190. Magnesia.
183. Death of Africánus, Hannibal, and Philopoemen.171-168. Third Macedonian War.
168. Pydna.
149-146. Third Punic War.
149., Death of Cato the elder.
146. Destruction of Carthage and Corinth.143-133. The Numantine War.
134-132. The Servile War.
133. Tiberius Gracchus.
129. Death of Africánus the younger.123-121. Gaius Gracchus.
118-104. The Jugurthine War. Metellus. Marius. Sulla.
| 102. | Aquae Sextiae. |
| 101. | Vercellae. |
| 90-89. | The Italian or Social War. |
| 86. | Death of Marius. |
| 86-84. | Sulla's campaign against Mithradátes. |
| 84. | Death of Cinna. |
| 80. | Reforms of Sulla. |
| 78. | Death of Sulla. |
| 80-72. | Sertorius in Spain. |
| 73-71. | Spartacus. |
| 72-67. | Campaign of Lucullus against Mithradátes. |
| 67. | Pompey conquers the pirates. |
| 67-61. | Pompey in the East. |
| 63. | Cicero Consul. Catiline. |
| 59. | First Triumvirate formed. Caesar's first Consulship. |
| 59. | The Leges Juliae. Clodius. Cicero's banishment. Cato sent to Cyprus. |
| 58-49. | Caesar in Gaul. |
| 57. | Recall of Cicero. Return of Cato. |
| 53. | Death of Crassus. Murder of Clodius. Pompey's consulship and |
| 52 | separation from Caesar. |
| 49. | Caesar crosses the Rubicon. |
| 49. | Siege and capture of Ilerda. |
| 48 (Jan. | 4). Caesar sails from Brundisium. |
| 48. | Victory of Pompey near the sea-board. |
| 48 (Aug. | 9). Pharsalia. (Sept 28) Murder of Pompey. Caesar establishes Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt. |
| 47. | Battle of Zela. |
| 47 (Sept.). Caesar returns to Rome. | |
| 46 (Apr. | 4). Thapsus. Death of Cato the younger. |
| 45 (Mar. | 17). Munda. |
| 44 (Mar. | 15). Murder of Caesar. |
43 (Nov. 27). The Second Triumvirate.
43 (Dec.) Murder of Cicero.
42 (Nov.). Philippi.
B.C. / A.D.
30-41. THE JULIAN EMPERORS.
30-14. Augustus.
14-37. Tiberius.
37-41. Caligula.
41-68. THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS.
41-54. Claudius.
54-68. Nero.
68-69. Galba.
Comitia Centuriata; Decemvir; law of Majestas. With what importantevents was each connected? [Omit one; answer very briefly.]
1888.
[Take one]
1887.
Questions on the "additional reading."
[Candidates who have read the books recommended for additional readingmay substitute one of the following questions for one of the firstthree in this group.]
September, 1886.
municipium, ager Romanus, equites.
June, 1889.
1887.
[Time allowed, 30 minutes.]
1886.
June, 1885.
35TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION November 22, 1889.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to12 M., only. 48 credits; necessary to pass, 36.
Jugurtha; (2) Battle of Actium, or battle of Philippi; (3) Death ofAntony, or death of Cicero? (3)
June 14, 1889.--Time, 9 30 A.M. to 12 M., only.
48 credits; necessary to pass, 36.
33d ACADEMIC EXAMINATION.
March 8, 1889.--Time, 9.30 A M. to 12 M., only.
44 credits; necessary to pass, 33.
31st Advanced Academic Examination,
June 15, 1888.--Time, 9.30 A. M. to 12 M., only.
48 credits; necessary to pass, 36.
March 2, 1888.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only.
48 credits; necessary to pass, 36.
29th Advanced Academic Examination.
November 18, 1887.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only.
48 credits; necessary to pass, 36.
Achaeans
Achaia
Acroceraunia
Actium
Adherbal
Aduatuci
Aediles
Aedui
Aegátes Islands
Aegyptus
Aemilian Way
Aemilius
Aenéas
Aequians
Aesis, R.
Aetius
Aetna
Aetolians
Afranius
Africa
Africánus
Agendicum
Ager occupátus
Ager privátus
Ager publicus
Ager Románus
Agrarian Laws
Agricola
Agrigentum
Agrippa
Agrippína, daughter of Agrippa
Agrippína, sister of Caligula
Alae
Alans
Alaric
Alba Longa
Alban Lake
Alban Mts.
Alesia
Alexander the Great
Alexandría
Allia
Allies
Alsium
Ambiorix
Amphitheatres
Amulius
Anchíses
Ancóna
Ancus Marcius
Andes
Andriscus
Anio, R.
Anthemius
Antiochus III.
Antiochus IV.
Antium
Antonia
Antonius
Antonínus, Marcus Aurelius
Antonínus Pius
Antony
Aóus, R.
Apennines
Apollo, worship of
Apollonia
Apollonius
Appeal, right of
Appian Way
Appius Claudius, Decemvir
Appius Claudius, father-in-law of GracchusAppius Claudius Caecus
Appuleian Laws
Apsus, R.
Apulia
Aqua Claudia
Aquae Sextiae
Aqueducts
Aquileia
Aquínum
Aquitáni
Arabia
Arabia Petraea
Arcadius
Archeláus
Arches
Archimédes
Ardea
Argos
Aricia
Ariminum
Ariobarzánes
Ariovistus
Aristobúlus
Armenia
Arminius
Armor
Army
Arnus
Arpi
Arpínum
Arretium
Arsanias, R.
Aryan Race
Ascanius
Asculum in Apulia
Asia
Assyria
Aternus
Athens
Athesis
Atrium
Attalus II.
Attalus III.
Attila
Aufidus, R.
Augurs
Augustan Age
Augusta Taurinórum
Augusti
Augustus
Aulerci
Aurelia
Aurelian
Aurelian Way
Aurelius, M. Antonínus
Avaricum
Averni
Avernus, Lake
Baeculae
Baetis, R.
Baiae
Basilicae
Basilica Julia
Bathing
Baths
Bellovaci
Beneventum
Bibracte
Bibulus
Bithynia
Bocchus
Boian Gauls
Bononia
Books
Bovillae
Brennus
Bridge, Rhine
Bridge, Tiber
Britain
Britannia
Britannicus
Brittany
Brundisium
Bruttium
Brutus, nephew of Tarquin
Brutus
Brutus, Decimus Junius
Brutus, Marcus
Burgundians
Burrhus
Byzantium
Cabíra
Caecína
Caepio
Caere
Caesar, Gaius Julius
Caesar, Lucius Julius
Caesars
Caícus
Calabria
Calceus
Caledonians
Calendar
Caligula
Calpurnia
Calpurnian Law
Camarína
Camerínum
Camillus
Campania
Campus Martius
Candles
Cannae
Canuleian Law
Canuleius
Canusium
Capéna
Capitoline Hill
Capitolium
Cappadocia
Capreae
Capua
Caracalla
Carrhae
Carthage
Carthaginians
Carthágo Nova
Carus
Casca
Casilínum
Cassius.
Cassivelaunus
Catalonia
Catana
Catiline
Cato, the elder
Cato, the younger
Catullus
Catulus, father of the Senate
Catulus, Gaius Lutatius
Caudine Forks
Caudium
Celtibéri
Celts
Cenománi
Censors
Centuries
Centurions
Ceres
Cerialia
Cethégus
Chaeronéa
Chalcédon
Chalons
Christians
Cicero, Marcus Tullius
Cicero, Quintus Tullius
Cilicia
Cimber
Cimbri
Cincinnátus
Cineas
Cinna
Circeii
Circeium, Promontory
Circus
Circus Maximus
Citizenship
City walls
Claudian Emperors
Claudius, Emperor
Claudius, Publius
Cleopátra
Clients
Cloáca Maxima
Clodion
Clodius
Clupea
Clusium
Coena
Cohors Praetoria
Collatínus
Colonies, Latin
Colonies, Maritime
Colonies, Military.
Comitia Centuriáta
Comitia Curiáta
Comitia Tribúta
Comitium
Colosséum
Colossus
Column of Trajan
Columna Milliaria
Columns
Commodus
Constans
Constantine the Great
Constantine II.
Constantinople
Constantius I.
Constantius II.
Conscripti, Patres
Consuls
Consus
Cora
Corcýra
Corduba
Corfinium
Corinth
Coriolánus
Corioli
Corn laws
Cornelia, daughter of Cinna
Cornelia, daughter of Metellus Scipio
Cornelia, daughter of Scipio AfricánusCorsica
Cotta
Council of Nice
Court-houses
Courts
Crassus, the Triumvir
Crassus, son of the Triumvir
Cremóna
Crete
Croton
Cumae
Cures
Curia
Curiae
Curio.
Curtius
Curule Aedile
Curule chair
Curule offices
Cynoscephalae
Cyprus
Cyrenaica
Dacia
Damophilus
Deal
Debts, Debtors
Decemvirs
Decius, Emperor
Decius, Publius
Decree of the Senate
Deiotarus
Dentátus
Dependent Communities
Dictator
Diocletian
Dolabella
Domitian
Domitius.
Drepana
Dress
Drusus, Germanicus
Drusus, Marcus Livius
Duilius
Duoviri Sacrórum
Dyrrachium
Eburónes
Ecnomus
Edict of Milan
Editor.
Education
Egesta
Egnatius
Egypt
Elba
Elections
Enipeus, R.
Enna
Ennius
Epidamnus
Epiphanes
Epírus
Equites
Eryx
Etruria
Etruscans
Eudoxia
Eugenius
Eunus
Euphrátes
Examination Papers
Fabii
Fabius, Cunctátor
Fabius Quintus
Fabius Vibulánus
Fabricius
Faesulae
Farming the revenues
Fauces
Faustulus
Festivals
Fetiales
Five Good Emperors
Flamen Diális
Flamines
Flaminian Way
Flaminínus
Flaminius
Flavian Emperors
Floors
Florentia
Foreigners resident at Rome
Formiae
Forum
Forum Boarium
Forum Caesaris
Forum Holitorium
Forum Julii, in Gaul
Forum Julii, in Venetia
Forum Suarium
Forum of Trajan
Forum of Vespasian
Franks
Freedmen
Fundi
Funerals
Furniture
Gabii
Gabinius
Gabínus
Gades
Galatia
Galba, Emperor
Galba, Servius
Galerius
Gallia Cisalpína
Gallia Narbonensis
Gaul
Gauls
Games
Gela
Genabum
Gens, Gentes
Genseric
Genua
Genucius
Gergovia
Germanicus, Drusus
Germanicus, son of Drusus Germ.
Germans
Glabrio
Gladiators
Glass
Glaucia
Golden House of Nero
Good Emperors
Gordian
Goths
Gracchi
Gracchus, Gains
Gracchus, Tiberius (senior)
Gracchus, Tiberius
Gratian
Greece
Greek Empire
Hadrian
Hadrumétum
Hamilcar Barca
Hannibal, son of Gisco
Hannibal, son of Hamilcar
Hanno
Hasdrubal, son-in-law of Hamilcar
Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal
Hasdrubal, son of Gisco
Helena
Heliogabalus
Helvetii
Heracléa
Herculaneum
Herméan Promontory
Hiempsal
Hiero II.
Hieronymus
Hirtius
Hispania Citerior
Hispania Ulterior
Honorius
Horace
Horatius Codes
Hortensius, Quintus
Hortensius, the Orator
Homesteads
Houses
Huns
Hyrcánus
Iapygia
Iapygians
Ibérus, R.
Icilius
Igilium
Ilerda
Illyrican War
Illyricum
Ilva
Imperator
Imperium
Intermarriage
Interest
Interrex
Isara, R.
Isauria
Isthmian Games
Italians
Italy
Iúlus
Janiculum
Janus
Jentaculum
Jerusalem
Jews
Joséphus
Jovian
Juba
Judaea
Jugurtha
Julia, daughter of Caesar
Julia, daughter of Augustus
Julian Emperors
Julian the Apostate
Julian Law
Juliánus
Juno
Jupiter
Juries
Justin Martyr
Juvenal
Kaeso, Quinctius
King of Rome
Knights.
Labiénus
Lacerna
Lacinian Promontory
Laevínus
Laevínus, Marcus
Lamps
Land-owners, classes of
Lanistae
Lanuvium
Lares
Last of the Romans
Latin Confederacy
Latínus
Latium
Latóna
Laurentum
Lavinia
Lavinium
Legáti
Leges Juliae
Legion
Lentulus
Leontíni
Lepidus, Consul
Lepidus, Triumvir
Leptis
Lesbos
Letter-writing
Lex de Repetundis
Licinian Rogations
Licinius
Liger
Lights
Liguria
Lilybaeum
Lipara Islands
Liris, R.
Literature
Livia
Livilla
Livius
Locri
Longínus
Luca
Lucan
Lucania
Luceres
Luceria
Lucilius
Lucretia
Lucretius
Lucullus
Lupercalia
Luperci
Lupercus
Lupus
Lycia
Macedonia
Macedonian War
Macrínus
Maecénas
Maenius
Magister Equitum
Magna Graecia
Magnesia
Mago
Majestas
Majorian
Mamertines
Mancínus
Manilian Law
Manilius
Manlius, Marcus
Manlius Capitolínus
Mantua
Marcellus
Marcellus, nephew of Augustus
Marius,
Marriage
Mars
Martial
Masinissa.
Massilia
Mauretania
Mausoléum of Augustus
Mausoléum of Hadrian
Maximian
Maximin
Maximus I.
Maximus II.
Meals
Mediolánum
Memmius
Menenius Agrippa
Mesopotamia
Messalína
Messána
Metapontum
Metaurus, R.
Metellus Macedonicus
Metellus Nepos
Metellus Numidicus
Metellus Pius
Micipsa
Milan, Edict of
Milétus
Military Tribunes
Milliarium Aureum
Milo
Minerva
Minturnae
Minucius
Mithradátes
Mityléne
Moesia
Money brokers
Mons Sacer
Moors
Mucra, R.
Mummius
Munda
Municipia
Muthul
Mutina
Mylae
Mysia
Names
Naples
Naulochus
Navy
Nepos
Nero, Consul
Nero, Emperor
Nerva
Nervii
Nicaea
Nicomédes
Nobles
Nola
Noricum
Novus Homo
Numantia
Numantian War
Numa Pompilius
Numidia
Numitor
Nursia
Octavia, sister of Augustus
Octavia, wife of Nero
Octavius
Odoácer
Offices and officers
Ops
Orchomenos
Osca
Ostia
Ostium
Ostrogoths
Otho
Ovation
Ovid
Padua (Patavium)
Palatine
Pales, Palilia
Palmýra
Pannonia
Panormus
Pantheon
Parma
Parthia, Parthians
Pater-familias
Patres
Patrician
Patricians
Patrons
Paullus
Pelusium
Penátes
Pergamum
Peristylium
Perperna
Perseus
Persius
Pertinax
Petreius
Phaedrus
Pharnaces
Pharsalia, Pharsálus
Philip, Emperor
Philip of Macedonia
Philippi
Philippics
Philopoemen
Phoenicia
Picénum
Picts'
Pirates
Pisae
Pisaurum
Piso
Placentia
Plautian-Papirian Law
Plautus
Plebeians
Plebiscita
Pliny, the elder
Pliny, the younger
Pollio
Polybius
Polycarp
Pomoerium
Pompeia
Pompeii
Pompeius, Gnaeus
Pompeius, Sextus
Pompey the Great
Pomptine Marshes
Pontifices
Pontius
Pontus
Poppaea Sabína
Porsena
Postumius
Potestas
Praefect
Praefectúrae
Praeneste
Praetor
Praetorian Guard
Praetorium
Prandium
Private Lands
Private Rights
Probus
Proconsul
Propertius
Propraetor
Provinces
Provincial System
Prusias
Ptolemy, brother of Cleopátra
Ptolemy of Cyprus
Ptolemy V., Epiphanes
Ptolemy Alexander
Publicani
Public Lands
Public Rights
Publilian Law, Publilius
Punic Wars
Puteoli
Pydna
Pyrrhus
Quaestors
Quinctius Cincinnátus
Quinctius, Kaeso
Quintilian
Quirínal
Quirinalia
Radagaisus
Ramnes
Ravenna
Reáte
Reforms of Caesar
Reforms of Sulla
Regillus, Lake
Regulus
Remi
Remus
Rents
Republic
Rhaetia
Rhea Silvia
Rhegium
Rhodes
Ricimer
Roads
Roman Empire
Romans
Rome
Rome, Hills of
Romulus
Roscius
Rostra
Rubicon
Rutilius
Sabines
Sabis, R.
Sacred Mount
Sacredness of Officials
Sagum
Saguntum
Salernum
Salii
Sallust
Samnites
Samnite Wars
Samnium
Samos
Sardinia
Sardis
Saturn
Saturnalia
Saturnínus
Scaevola
Scarpheia
Scipio, Gnaeus
Scipio, Consul 218 B. C.
Scipio Africánus, the elder
Scipio Africánus, the younger
Scipio Asiaticus
Scipio, Metellus
Scipio Nasíca
Scribonia
Segesta
Sejánus
Seleucia
Selínus
Sempronia
Sempronius
Sena Gallica
Senate
Senones
Sentínum
Sequani
Sertorius
Servian Reform
Servile War
Servilius
Servius Tullius
Setia
Sevérus, Alexander
Sevérus, Septimius
Sevérus III.
Sewers
Sextus Lateránus
Sextus, son of Tarquin
Ships
Sibylline Books
Sicily
Silver Age
Silvius Procas
Sinuessa
Slaves.
Social War
Soleae
Solon
Sophonisba
Soracte, Mt.
Sosigenes
Spain
Sparta
Spartacus
Spoletium
Spurius Cassius
Standards
Statius
Stilicho
Stola
Strongyle Islands
Suessiónes
Sueves, Suevi
Sulla
Sulmo
Sulpicius Galba
Sulpicius Rufus
Sutrium
Sybaris
Syphax
Syracuse
Syria
Tablinum
Tacitus, Emperor
Tacitus, Historian
Tarentum.
Tarquinii
Tarquinius Priscus
Tarquinius Superbus
Tarracína
Tarragóna
Tauromenium
Tax-gatherers
Teánum
Telamon
Tellilia, Tellus
Temple of Aesculapius
Temple of Apollo Palatínus
Temple of Ceres
Temple of Concordia
Temple of Diána
Temple of Janus
Temple of Juno
Temple of Jupiter
Temple of Mars
Temple of Peace
Tenth Legion, revolt of
Terence
Terentilius, Terentilian Rogations
Teutoberger Forest
Teutones
Thala
Thapsus
Theatre
Theatre of Balbus
Theatre of Marcellus
Theatre of Pompey
Theodosius
Thermae
Thermus
Thessaly
Thirty Tyrants
Thurii
Tibullus
Tibur
Tiberius
Ticínus, R.
Tigellínus
Tigránes
Time, mode of reckoning
Tities
Titus
Tivoli
Toga
Torquátus
Trajan
Trasiménus, Lake
Trebia, R.
Trebonius
Tribes
Tribunes
Tribúni Militum
Tribútum
Triclinium
Trigánum
Trinacria
Triumphal Arches
Triumphal Procession
Triumvirate, First
Triumvirate, Second,
Tullia, daughter of Servius Tullius
Tullus Hostilius
Tunica
Tunis
Tusculum
Twelve Caesars
Twelve Tables
Tyndaris
Umbria, Umbrians
Utica
Vadimónis, Lake
Valens
Valentinian I.
Valentinian II.
Valentinian III.
Valerius, Valerio-Horatian Laws
Valerius, Caesar's Lieutenant
Valero Publilius
Vandals
Varro, Consul at Cannae
Varro, Pompey's Lieutenant
Varus
Veii, Veientes
Velítrae
Veneti
Venetia
Venice
Venusia
Vercellae
Vercingetorix
Verginius
Veróna
Verres
Verus, Annius
Verus, Lucius
Vespasian
Vesta.
Vestal Virgins
Vestibulum
Vesuvius, Mt.
Veto
Veturius
Via Aemilia
Via Appia
Via Aurelia
Via Flaminia
Via Latína
Via Sacra
Vienna
Villius
Virgil
Virginia, Virginius
Viriáthus
Visigoths
Vitellius
Volaterrae
Volsci
Volsinii
Volturnus
Voting
Vulso
Windows
Writing
Written Code of Laws
York
Zama
Zela
Zeno
Zenobia
Zeugma
Zeugma